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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 8 Abstracts
TRAVEL SICKNESS AND MEAT QUALITY IN PIGS
R H Bradshaw*¹, J M Randall², M L Forsling³, R Rodway4, J A Goode5, S N Brown6, and D M Broom¹
1 Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
2 Silsoe Research Institute, Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedford MK45 4HS, UK
3 UMDS, Division of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, St Thomas"s Hospital, London SE1 7EM, UK
4 Department of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
5 MAFF Laboratory of Welfare and Behaviour, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB2 4ET, UK
6 Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 3-14
An experiment was conducted to investigate the incidence of travel sickness in pigs, specific hormone concentrations at exsanguination and subsequent meat quality. Fifty, 80kg slaughter pigs were transported on a lorry for 4.5h. During the journey, behavioural observations of the individually marked pigs were made by scanning every 8min to establish whether the pigs exhibited certain symptoms of travel sickness (foaming at the mouth and chomping) and incidences of retching and vomiting were noted as they occurred. Upon arrival at the slaughterhouse, pigs were unloaded, slaughtered immediately and a blood sample was taken at exsanguination for analysis of plasma cortisol, beta-endorphin and lysine vasopressin concentrations. On the day following slaughter, the chilled carcase of each pig was assessed for meat quality (using pH, Fibre Optic Probe, and Tecpro Pork Quality Meter measurements) in the longissimus dorsi, semimembranosus and adductor muscles to determine the incidence of PSE (pale, soft, exudative) or DFD (dark, firm, dry) meat quality. Twenty-six per cent of the pigs (a total of 13 individuals) vomited or retched during the journey. There was no relationship between the incidence of travel sickness and either the concentrations of the hormones analysed at exsanguination or subsequent meat quality. Correlations revealed no significant relationship between concentrations of the hormones and meat quality measurements.
Keywords: animal welfare, lysine vasopressin, meat quality, pigs, stress hormones, travel sickness
SOCIALIZATION AND STRESS IN CATS
(FELIS SILVESTRIS CATUS) HOUSED SINGLY AND IN GROUPS IN ANIMAL SHELTERS
M R Kessler*¹ and D C Turner²
1 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Institute for Animal Science, Physiology and Animal Husbandry, ETH Zentrum, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
2 Institute for applied Ethology and Animal Psychology (IEAP), CH-8816 Hirzel, Switzerland and Zoology Institute, University of Zurich-Irchel, Switzerland
* Contact for correspondence and to whom requests for reprints should be sent at: Chamerstrasse 15, CH-6331 H*nenberg, Switzerland
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 15-26
Single- and group-housing conditions for cats in animal shelters represent spatially and socially very different housing types. This study investigated whether the socialization of the cat towards conspecifics and people influences adaptation to these two housing types. Socialization towards conspecifics and people was determined in 169 rescued cats by means of two behavioural tests and a socialization questionnaire. Stress levels of the cats in the single- and group-housing condition were recorded by the non-invasive Cat-Stress-Score. Cats which were non-socialized towards conspecifics (n-SC) were more stressed than cats socialized towards conspecifics (SC) in the group enclosure. During the first hour and on days 6 and 7 in the observation cage, the n-SC were significantly less stressed under the single- than under the group-housing condition. The other members of the group had a higher stress level when a n-SC entered the group than if the new cat was a SC. Among the SC, there was no detectable difference in stress levels between the single- and group-housing condition. Cats which were non-socialized towards people (n-SP) were more stressed than cats socialized towards people (SP) during the whole stay under both single- and group-housing conditions.
It was concluded that n-SC should be held under single-housing conditions in animal shelters. For SC both the single- and group-housing condition are equally recommended for stays of a few weeks. For n-SP, stays in animal shelters should be avoided because of their high stress levels.
Keywords: animal husbandry, animal shelter, animal welfare, cat, socialization, stress
TRANSPORT STRESS AND EXERCISE HYPERTHERMIA RECORDED IN SHEEP BY RADIOTELEMETRY
R F Parrott*, D M Lloyd and D Brown
MAFF Laboratory of Welfare and Behaviour, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB2 4AT, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 27-34
Deep body temperature was measured in four wethers and four ewes surgically implanted with biotelemetry devices. Records were taken over several days in the home pen (baseline data) and also in response to three potentially stressful procedures: transport, exposure to a sheepdog, and forced exercise. Loading the animals into a vehicle and transporting them for 2.5h produced a rise in core temperature that, in males, persisted for several hours. Moving the sheep into an outside pen and subsequent exposure to the dog appeared to produce transient increases in body temperature, although these changes were not statistically significant. By contrast, exercise for 30min resulted in a rapid and pronounced (approximately 2oC) temperature rise that was followed by an equally abrupt return to baseline. Sustained increases in deep body temperature or changes in circadian temperature rhythms in healthy sheep may be a response to psychological distress and, therefore, indicative of poor welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, exercise, hyperthermia, sheep, stress
PART-TIME FOSTERING BY A PAIR OF BLACK AND WHITE RUFFED LEMURS (VARECIA VARIEGATA VARIEGATA)
F J Kerridge
Bolton Primate Research Team, Biology and Environmental Studies, Bolton Institute, Deane Road, Bolton, BL3 5AB, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 35-42
Twin infant black and white ruffed lemurs, male and female, were fostered on a part-time basis, in conjunction with hand-rearing, with an adult pair who were highly related to them. The adult female showed allomaternal behaviour towards the twins, although she did not attempt to suckle them. The adult male ignored the twins for the first few weeks but as they became more mobile and playful he frequently initiated play with one or both. Growth rates showed a significant trend when compared with parentally raised and hand-reared infants, with the fostered twins growing at rates intermediate between those found under the two other rearing methods. Fostering of rejected infants as a captive management strategy is advocated as an alternative to traditional hand-rearing techniques because of the welfare advantages to both infants and foster parents.
Keywords: alloparental care, animal welfare, captive management, hand-rearing, ruffed lemur
INFLUENCE OF DRY FEED SUPPLEMENTS ON DIFFERENT PARAMETERS OF WELFARE IN VEAL CALVES
J P Morisse*, J P Cotte, D Huonnic and A Martrenchar
Centre National d'Etudes Vétérinaires et Alimentaires, BP 53, 22440 Ploufragan, France
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 43-52
The aim of the study was to compare different behavioural, physiological and performance traits in three groups of veal calves fed either a routine all-liquid diet with milk replacer (G0) or the same diet supplemented with a total of 10kg (G10) or 25kg (G25) of pelleted straw and cereals. Each of the three feeding programmes involved 21 male Friesian calves kept in individual crates for 20 weeks (from 1 to 21 weeks of age). Oral activities, haematological variables, ruminal characteristics, health and performance were all investigated. In calves supplied with dry feed, there was no evidence of ruminating behaviour; and chewing, regarded as a non-nutritive oral activity, was clearly reduced. The incidence of tongue playing and manipulating objects was not influenced by additional pellets.
Haemoglobin concentrations were higher in G25 than in other groups as a result of the extra iron supplied in the pellets. Other blood variables were unchanged. In G10 and G25 changes in rumen characteristics were clearly demonstrated by the following observations: i) the weight of reticulo-rumens increased by 11 and 35 per cent, respectively; ii) small papillae (virtually non-existent in calves fed an all-liquid diet) were present, and there was a darkening of the mucosa; and iii) there was a marked reduction in the number of hairballs, resulting from a continuous elimination of ingested hair by ruminal motility. In G25, carcase weight was significantly (P < 0.05) increased by 6.5 per cent compared with controls and no detrimental effects such as bloating or abomasal ulceration were observed when dry feed was added. Supplying calves with straw-cereal pellets was considered positive for the physiological aspects of welfare in veal calves. However, other diet compositions capable of inducing rumination behaviour should also be investigated.
Keywords: animal welfare, solid feed, veal calves
METHODS FOR MEASURING FEEDING MOTIVATION IN SHEEP
R E Jackson¹*, N K Waran¹ and M S Cockram²
1 Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, School of Agriculture Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
2 Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Veterinary Field Station, Easter Bush, Roslin EH25 9RG, UK
* Contact address for correspondence and request for reprints: Department of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 53-63
The effects of food restriction on the welfare of sheep are as yet unclear. An operant crate and a push-door were used to measure feeding motivation in sheep after 0h, 6h, 12h, 18h and 24h without food. In experiment 1, sheep had to push a panel with their noses to obtain a food reward. In experiment 2, sheep had to run a race and push through a weighted door to reach food; the time taken to reach various points was recorded and the work performed to push through the door was calculated.
In experiment 1, 3 out of 12 sheep became trained to push the panel and there was a difference in the mean number of rewards/session obtained by each animal (P < 0.05). There was no effect of treatment on the number of panel presses performed. In experiment 2, 10 out of 14 sheep were successfully trained. More sheep went through the push-door when deprived of food (P < 0.05), and they were quicker to enter the race, reach the push-door, and reach the food than those which had not been deprived (P < 0.0001). They also spent less time pushing the door than non-deprived sheep (P < 0.0001).
The push-door was a more appropriate method of measuring motivation to feed in sheep, as more sheep learned the task in less time than for the operant crate. As measured by the time taken to enter the race, reach the push-door, push through the door and reach the food there was an increase in feeding motivation after only 6h without food.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, food deprivation, sheep
SOURCES OF SOUND IN THE LABORATORY ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT: A SURVEY OF THE SOUNDS PRODUCED BY PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT
G D Sales¹*, S R Milligan² and K Khirnykh³
1 Division of Life Sciences, King"s College, Campden Hill Road, London W8 7AH, UK
2 Division of Biomedical Sciences, King"s College, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK
3 School of Engineering Systems and Design, University of the South Bank, 101 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK
* Contact for correspondence and request for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 97-115
Sounds in the laboratory and animal house environment were monitored for sound pressure levels over both low frequency (10Hz&endash;12.5kHz) and high frequency (12.5&endash;70 kHz) ranges and were recorded for frequency analysis over the range 10Hz&endash;100kHz. Forty sources of sound were investigated at 10 different sites. Sources included environmental control systems, maintenance and husbandry procedures, cleaning equipment and other equipment used near animals. Many of the sounds covered a wide frequency band and extended into the ultrasonic (> 20kHz) range. Sound levels produced by environmental control systems were generally at a low level. High sound pressure levels (SPLs) up to and exceeding 85dB SPL were recorded during cleaning and particularly high levels were recorded from the transport systems studied. Equipment such as a tattoo gun, a condensation extractor system, a high-speed centrifuge, and an ultrasonic disintegrator produced high levels of sound over a broad spectrum.
As many laboratory animals are much more sensitive to a wider range of sound frequency than humans, it seems likely that the levels of sound reported here could adversely affect animals through physiological or behavioural changes, or may even cause sensory damage in extreme cases. There appear to have been no studies on the minimal threshold levels for such adverse responses, or on the long-term effects of exposure to the types of sounds recorded here. It is not yet possible to set realistic exposure limits for laboratory animals.
Keywords: acoustic environment, animal welfare, laboratory animals, noise, sound levels
BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MIXING AT DIFFERENT STOCKING DENSITIES IN PREPUBERTAL LAMBS
J L Ruiz-de-la-Torre and X Manteca*
Department of Physiology, School of Veterinary Sciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 117-126
The behavioural effects of mixing individuals from two different flocks were studied in prepubertal lambs of about 20kg body weight kept at either low (1 animal m-2) or high (3.3 animals m-2) stocking densities. At both densities, flock mates associated preferentially with one another over the three experimental days. The social mixing conditions decreased the total number of aggressive interactions (including head-to-head clashes, head-to-body buttings and mountings). Since animals associated preferentially with flock mates, aggressive behaviours were also preferentially directed towards individuals from the same flock. Males initiated significantly more aggressive interactions than females. The total number of aggressive interactions received was similar for males and females, but females received more mountings than males. Stocking density, therefore, had no effect on aggressive behaviour. These results are discussed as they relate to transport and it is suggested that social mixing may not be a welfare problem in prepubertal lambs.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, mixing, sheep, stocking density, transport
BEHAVIOUR AND PREFERENCES AMONG DEEP LITTERS IN CAPTIVE CAPUCHIN MONKEYS
(CEBUS CAPUCINUS)
E Ludes-Fraulob1 and J R Anderson2*
1 Centre de Primatologie, Université Louis Pasteur, 67207 Niederhausbergen, France
2 Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 127-134
A captive group of white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus, was presented with four deep litters in simultaneous choice (or preference) tests. A floor covering of ground corn cob, woodchips, wood wool or peat was presented once in each quarter of the group"s indoor floor-area for 14 consecutive days, and the layout of the litters was rotated after each such period. The monkeys were observed on 10 days in each period to determine the occurrence of locomotion, foraging, play, and social contact on each of the litters. The ground corn cob was clearly the least attractive floor covering for the monkeys, while peat and wood wool proved to be the most attractive. Most instances of social contact occurred on the peat, due to the occurrence of communal peat-bathing, while wood wool afforded the most play. The provision of different litter types in different areas of the indoor enclosure is a simple means of promoting a greater range of natural activities in captive primates, and probably also in other animals.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, foraging, litter, play, preferences, social contact
EFFECTS OF A 15H JOURNEY FOLLOWED BY EITHER 12H STARVATION OR AD LIBITUM HAY ON THE BEHAVIOUR AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY OF SHEEP
M S Cockram¹*, J E Kent², N K Waran³, I M McGilp¹, R E Jackson³*,
J R Amory³, E L Southall³, T O"Riordan¹, T I McConnell¹ and B S Wilkins¹
1 Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
2* Department of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
3 Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, School of Agriculture Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
* Current address
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 135-148
In a 2x2 factorial design, (n=6) sheep were either transported by road for 15h or kept in their home pens, and then either starved for 12h with access to water or offered hay ad libitum, with access to water. All groups were offered hay and water 12h after transport. Behavioural observations and measurements of dehydration and feed restriction were made before, during, and for 24h post-transport, to evaluate the implications of these procedures for the welfare of sheep.
After the journey, the immediate priority for the sheep was to eat. Consumption of hay increased water intake and reduced the time spent lying down. The plasma cortisol concentration was greater in sheep which had been starved during the 12h post-transport period, than in those offered hay during this time; and the plasma free fatty acid concentration was greater in sheep which had been transported than in those which had not. Although transported sheep kept without hay during the first 12h post-transport drank more water than those which had not been transported, the mean time before they drank was greater than 7h. During the transport period, there was less lying behaviour in transported sheep than in non-transported sheep but transported sheep did not lie down more post-transport than non-transported ones. This work suggests that sheep should be offered both feed and water after a 15h journey. However, when feed was not available after a 15h journey, drinking and resting did not appear to be immediate priorities.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, blood chemistry, sheep, transport
THE EFFECT OF HAY ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF CAGED RABBITS (ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS)
H Berthelsen* and L T Hansen
Zoological Institute, University of Copenhagen, Tagensvej 16, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
* Contact for correspondence and request for reprints at: Vestergade 51B, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 149-157
To examine the effect of hay on behaviour of caged rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, a study was carried out on 86 rabbits, kept in wire cages with no access to hay in one period and with access to hay in a second period. As the study was part of a larger experiment analysing the rabbits" behaviour in two different cage systems, the rabbits were equally distributed across two systems: a system with conventional barren wire cages, and an enriched system with boxes and raised height at the back of the wire cages. The rabbits" behaviour was recorded using direct scan sampling during the day and continuous registration based on video recording at night. When hay was available, the rabbits in both cage systems performed significantly less bar gnawing and excessive grooming. This applied especially to the rabbits kept in the conventional cage system which also showed a distinct decrease in their frequency of changing between different behaviours. This suggests that rabbits kept in cages where hay is available are less stressed than those kept in cages where it is not. Enrichment with hay should, therefore, be considered in attempts to improve the welfare of caged rabbits.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, environmental enrichment, rabbits
CAN "ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT" AFFECT DOMESTIC CHICKENS" PREFERENCES FOR ONE HALF OF AN OTHERWISE SYMMETRICAL HOME CAGE?
R B Jones* and N L Carmichael
Division of Environment and Welfare, Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 159-164
Chickens were reared in pairs in wooden boxes from 1 to 10 days of age. One chick from each pair was marked to facilitate identification and its position in one or other of the symmetrical halves of the home box was noted at each of 32 visual scans carried out every day. Cumulative sightings in each half were calculated across the first 5 days to establish the least preferred half. Three "enrichment" objects were then placed in the least preferred half of each box on day 6. The chicks" positions were again recorded at each of 32 scans on 5 consecutive days. The enrichment objects were avoided on day 6 but such neophobia waned within 24h and a weak, non-significant trend for enrichment to increase usage of the least preferred half became apparent. The strong side preferences shown by the chicks before the introduction of enrichment stimuli, and their transitory neophobia, sound important cautionary notes for the design and assessment of husbandry and environmental enrichment procedures.
Keywords: animal welfare, cage side preferences, domestic chicks, environmental enrichment
PREFERENCES OF GROWING FOWLS FOR DIFFERENT LIGHT INTENSITIES IN RELATION TO AGE, STRAIN AND BEHAVIOUR
N J Davis¹, N B Prescott² *, C J Savory³ and C M Wathes²
1 Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, School of Agriculture, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
2 Silsoe Research Institute, Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedfordshire MK45 4HS, UK
3 SAC Poultry Science Department, Auchincruive, Ayr KA6 5HW, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 193-203
The preferences of broiler and layer strains of fowl for four different intensities of incandescent luminaire (6, 20, 60 and 200 lux; Osram, 60W, pearl) were tested at 2 and 6 weeks of age. With each strain, four replicates of 12 birds were each allowed to move freely between four compartments illuminated continuously at the different intensities for 6 days. The distribution of light intensities among the compartments was changed daily. After 2 days of conditioning, the birds" location and behaviour were recorded once every 15min over 23h on each of the remaining 4 days. The other hour was devoted to changing light intensities and refilling the feeders and drinkers. Six, mutually exclusive behaviours were defined: resting, perching, feeding, drinking, litter-directed activity and locomotion.
With both strains, most time was spent in the brightest (200 lux) environment at 2 weeks of age, but in the dimmest (6 lux) at 6 weeks. This apparent change in preference was associated only with the two behaviours which took up most time, resting and perching, whereas the highest intensity was consistently preferred for all other behaviours. Older birds thus preferred to be in dim light when they were relatively inactive.
The finding that older birds prefer to spend much of their time in a light environment of < 10 lux intensity, depending on behaviour, is contrary to current recommendations that minimum light intensities for broilers and laying hens should be increased to as much as 20 lux. Some variation in the spatial or temporal distribution of ambient light intensity, to provide both dimly (< 10 lux) and brightly (eg > 50 lux) lit environments, might benefit the welfare of older poultry, although further work is needed to establish their optimal light environment.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, broilers, environmental preference, layers, light intensity
THE WELFARE OF FARMED MINK (MUSTELA VISON) IN RELATION TO HOUSING AND MANAGEMENT:
A REVIEW
A J Nimon and D M Broom*
Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 205-228
Early research on farmed mink was predominantly concerned with increased productivity; however, in recent years there have been an increasing number of studies related to welfare. The biology of feral mink has also become better understood, and such knowledge can aid in the assessment of welfare on farms, or in the interpretation of problems related to captivity. This paper is a comprehensive review of research pertinent to the welfare of farmed American mink, Mustela vison, in relation to their housing and management. It indicates how housing conditions might be changed to improve welfare, and where our present knowledge is insufficient. Many significant aspects of mink behaviour in the wild, such as their lack of social contact, their tendency to travel long distances and use several den sites, and regular swimming and diving, are denied them in captivity. Farmed mink also show high levels of stereotypy, suggesting that their welfare is not good. Welfare may be improved by appropriate environmental enrichment and changes in the social environment of farmed mink. In general, studies aimed at improving housing conditions have been limited in scope and outlook.
Keywords: animal welfare, housing, management, mink, Mustela vison, recommendations, stereotypies
THE EFFECTS OF 24H WATER DEPRIVATION WHEN ASSOCIATED WITH SOME ASPECTS OF TRANSPORTATION ON THE BEHAVIOUR AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY OF SHEEP
R E Jackson¹*, M S Cockram²*, P J Goddard³, O M Doherty¹, I M McGilp² and N K Waran¹
1 Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, School of Agriculture Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
2* Department of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall , Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
3 Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
* Current address
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 229-241
When sheep are transported they are potentially exposed to a number of factors, including water and feed deprivation, low space allowance and elevated environmental temperature, that are not related to vehicle motion but could result in animal welfare problems, either on their own or in combination. In a 2x2 factorial experiment, groups of sheep (n = 6) were moved from individual pens where they had access to hay and water to environmental chambers kept at either 14ƒC or 21ƒC. Within each chamber, half the sheep had access to water but they were all kept at a space allowance of 0× 41m2 sheep-1 without feed. After 24h they were returned to their individual pens and offered hay and water. Behaviour and a range of biochemical measurements of dehydration and feed restriction were recorded before, during and after the treatment period. During the treatment period there was no evidence of dehydration, and sheep with access to water drank less than they did before the treatment. The plasma concentration of free fatty acids increased during fasting and, post-treatment, the intake of hay was greater than before treatment. The rapid post-treatment intake of dry feed was associated with some evidence of dehydration, as indicated by increased plasma osmolality and plasma vasopressin concentration. This suggests that following provision and consumption of large quantities of feed after a period without access to feed and water during transportation, sheep must be allowed sufficient time to drink before a subsequent journey is undertaken.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, blood biochemistry, dehydration, sheep, transport
SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND INJURIES OF HORNED COWS IN LOOSE HOUSING SYSTEMS
C Menke¹*, S Waiblinger², D W F...;lsch¹ and P R Wiepkema³
1 Department of Farm Animal Behaviour and Management, University of Kassel, D-37217 Witzenhausen, Germany
2 Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Welfare, Veterinarian University Vienna, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
3 Department of Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University, NL-6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 243-258
The relationship between social behaviour and skin injuries (caused by horns) of loose housed horned cows was investigated on 35 dairy farms. While the frequencies of two agonistic behaviour elements (push and chase away) were positively correlated with the occurrence of skin injuries, the frequencies of butting and horning were not. Butting appears to have an ambivalent motivation, in that its occurrence is correlated positively both with agonistic behaviour and with social licking. Horning showed a positive correlation with social licking only. Four groups of husbandry conditions that may be associated with the occurrence of social behaviour and of injuries were distinguished: i) herd management, with variables including problem solving management by the farmer, integration of new cows, and dealing with periparturient and oestrus cows; ii) human-animal relationship, with variables including ability to identify individual cows, frequency of brushing the cows, number of milkers, and frequency of personnel changes; iii) animal characteristics, with the variable of herd size; and iv) stable characteristics, with the variable of space per cow (m2). The relevance of the husbandry variables investigated here had been confirmed in a previous stepwise regression analysis (Menke 1996). The variables for herd management and human-animal relationship conditions correlated in a consistent way with the occurrence of agonistic behaviour and/or of injuries, while most of them also correlated in the opposite direction with the occurrence of social licking. Herd size correlated positively with agonistic behaviour, but negatively with social licking. Space per cow correlated negatively with agonistic behaviour and injuries. In more than 70 per cent of the herds investigated, the levels of agonistic behaviour and of skin injuries were low, implying that horned dairy cows can be kept with less risk than is often assumed. We argue that such risks strongly depend on management factors that can be improved.
Keywords: animal welfare, horned dairy cows, human-animal relationship, injuries, loose housing, management, social behaviour
EFFECTS OF DENSITY AND CAGE SIZE ON STRESS IN DOMESTIC CATS (FELIS SILVESTRIS CATUS) HOUSED IN ANIMAL SHELTERS AND BOARDING CATTERIES
M R Kessler¹* and D C Turner²
1 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Institute for Animal Science, Physiology & Animal Husbandry, ETH Zentrum, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
2 Institute for applied Ethology and Animal Psychology, IEAP, CH-8816 Hirzel, Switzerland; and Zoology Institute, University of Zurich-Irchel, Switzerland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints at: Chamerstrasse 15, CH-6331 H*nenberg, Switzerland
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 259-267
This study investigated the influence of density and floor area on stress and the adaptation process of cats in animal shelters and boarding catteries. Sixty-three rescued cats were observed on 113 days in a shelter at group densities of 0.3&endash;0.9 animals m-2. In addition, 49 rescued cats were observed during their first week after being admitted to a control group housed at a density of 0.5 or 0.8 animals m-2, and 44 boarding cats were observed in single cages of either 0.7 or 1.0 m2 floor area during their first week in a cattery.
Group density was highly correlated with the stress level of animals housed in groups. A stress level of "weakly tense" was reached when the group density reached 0.6 animals m-2. During the first week of their stay, stress levels among cats which had been newly admitted to groups housed at 0.5 or 0.8 animals m-2 did not differ significantly. On days 1, 2 and 6 after admission, boarding cats housed in single cages with a floor area of 1.0m2 had significantly lower stress levels than animals in cages with a floor area of 0.7m2.
Group density was clearly shown to influence the adaptation process of cats which were housed for several weeks in groups. In order to avoid high stress levels, a group density of 0.6 animals m-2 should not be exceeded. However, the minimum spatial requirement for singly housed cats remains unknown.
Keywords: animal husbandry, animal shelter, animal welfare, cat, housing space requirements, stress
INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT ON AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR AND DOMINANCE RELATIONSHIPS IN GROWING PIGS
N E O"Connell* and V E Beattie
Agricultural Research Institute of Northern Ireland, Hillsborough, Co Down BT26 6DR, Northern Ireland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 269-279
This study examined the effects of environmental enrichment on aggressive behaviour and dominance relationships in growing pigs. Three hundred and twenty pigs were reared from birth to 15 weeks of age in either barren or enriched environments. The barren environments were defined by common intensive housing conditions (ie with slatted floors and in terms of recommended space allowances), while the enriched environments incorporated extra space and substrates for manipulation. Aggressive behaviour was observed in a social confrontation test during the suckling period and dominance relationships were assessed from a food competition test at 12 weeks of age. Animals were weighed at regular intervals throughout the experiment. Environmental enrichment reduced the expression of aggressive behaviour. Pigs from enriched rearing environments fought significantly less with unfamiliar animals than those from barren environments when tested under standard conditions (mean of 1.46 vs 2.75 fights per 30min test for enriched vs barren environments; SEM 0.20, P < 0.001). The nature of dominance relationships also appeared to differ between barren and enriched environments. In barren environments, dominance among pen mates was correlated with aggression (r = 0.33, P < 0.01), whereas in enriched environments it was correlated with body weight (r = 0.24, P < 0.01). Correlations between behaviour in the social confrontation and food competition tests suggested that dominance characteristics were established early in life and remained stable through the growing period.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, behaviour, dominance, environmental enrichment, pigs
ALLOWING CAPTIVE MARMOSETS TO CHOOSE THE SIZE AND POSITION OF THEIR NEST BOX
G R Hosey*, M Jacques and M Burton
Bolton Primate Research Team, Biology and Environmental Studies, Bolton Institute, Deane Road, Bolton BL3 5AB, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 281-285
Preferences for nest box size and position were tested in two groups of common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus jacchus. In a pre-test phase two, new, wooden nest boxes were introduced to each group alongside their old metal one, so that the animals could become familiar with them, and so that any pre-existing preference could be identified. In successive experiments: i) the old metal nest box was closed so that the marmosets had to choose a preferred box from the two new nest boxes; ii) the size of the preferred nest box was systematically reduced; and iii) in one of the groups the reduced nest box was restored to full size, but its position interchanged with the non-preferred box. In a further experiment, the position of the preferred, and then of the non-preferred box was raised to the highest point in the cage. The marmosets showed strong positional preferences which could not have been predicted without performing the tests. One of the groups also showed a strong preference for the high nest box. It was concluded that marmosets may exhibit preferences for their cage furniture, the basis of which may not be clear to us. These preferences should, however, be taken into account when designing cages to maximize the welfare of the animals.
Keywords: animal welfare, marmosets, nest box, preferences
STAYING GOOD WHILE PLAYING GOD -
THE ETHICS OF BREEDING FARM ANIMALS
P Sandøe¹*, B L Nielsen², L G Christensen¹, and P Sørensen³
1 Department of Animal Science and Animal Health, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Groennegaardsvej 8, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
2 Department of Animal Health and Welfare, Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Centre Foulum, PO Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
3 Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Centre Foulum, PO Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 313-328
Modern genetics has given us some very efficient tools with which to alter the characteristics of animals. To date, farm animal breeders have mainly used these tools to increase productivity. Thus, each new generation of farm animals matures faster, yields more milk, or produces more meat or eggs, than the previous one. Despite these apparent benefits, modern farm animal breeding has had severe negative consequences, including effects on the quality of the animals" lives and biodiversity. The aim of this paper is to discuss the goals and consequences of farm animal breeding within an ethical context. First, a description of what has happened to broilers and dairy cattle as breeders have pursued the goal of ever more efficient production is given. Second, the ethical values that ought to underlie future breeding schemes are discussed. It is suggested that there are in fact two very different ethical approaches: the "quality of life-based" approach and the "preservationist" approach. A view combining elements from both approaches is advanced. Finally, an example is given of how it is possible, in practice, to pursue an ethically defensible breeding goal without compromising production efficiency.
Keywords: animal welfare, breeding, ethics, genetic selection
SOME PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS TO WELFARE PROBLEMS IN DOG BREEDING
P D McGreevy and F W Nicholas*
Department of Animal Science, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 329-341
This paper reviews the history of the establishment of dog breeds, summarizes current health and resultant welfare problems and makes some positive suggestions for their resolution. Some breed standards and selection practices run counter to the welfare interests of dogs, to the extent that some breeds are characterized by traits that may be difficult to defend on welfare grounds. Meanwhile, little selection pressure seems to be exerted on some traits that would improve animal welfare and produce dogs better suited to modern society. Unfortunately, the incidence of certain inherited defects in some breeds is unacceptably high, while the number of registered animals of certain breeds within some countries is so low as to make it almost impossible for breeders to avoid mating close relatives. There are several constructive ways to overcome these challenges. Breed associations can ensure that reduction of welfare problems is one of their major aims; they can review breed standards; they can embrace modern technology for animal identification and pedigree checking; they can allow the introduction of "new" genetic material into closed stud-books; and they can encourage collaboration with geneticists in identifying and using DNA markers for the control of inherited disorders. There should be a concerted effort to produce and evaluate as companion animals first-cross (F1) hybrids from matings between various pairs of breeds. Finally, geneticists must learn to communicate their science better and in a language that non-geneticists can understand.
Keywords: animal welfare, breeding, defects, dog, genetics, hybrids
GENETIC SELECTION FOR POULTRY BEHAVIOUR:
BIG BAD WOLF OR FRIEND IN NEED?
R B Jones* and P M Hocking
Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS, UK
* Contact for correspondence and reprint requests
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 343-359
Although genetic selection for certain characteristics has compromised the well-being of domestic animals, selective breeding could and probably should be used to improve welfare. Three of the major behavioural problems facing the poultry industry are fear, feather pecking and social stress. However, these and many other behavioural traits respond readily to genetic selection. The present paper reports the results of selective breeding studies in which underlying fearfulness, sociality, feather pecking, adrenocortical responsiveness, and growth rate were manipulated in Japanese quail, Coturnix japonica, or in chickens, Gallus gallus domesticus. The apparent benefits of selection for appropriate levels of these characteristics are discussed, as are the ethical issues involved. The ultimate aims of the selection programmes and the studies described here are to improve the birds" welfare and productivity by increasing their ability to interact successfully with their physical environment, with one another, and with human beings.
Keywords: animal welfare, corticosterone, fear, feather pecking, genetic selection, social stress
STRAIN-SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF CAGE ENRICHMENT IN MALE LABORATORY MICE (MUS MUSCULUS)
C M Nevison¹,²**, J L Hurst² and C J Barnard¹
1 Animal Behaviour Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
2 Department of Veterinary Clinical Science and Animal Husbandry, University of Liverpool, Leahurst, Neston, South Wirral L64 7TE, UK
* Current address
* Contact for correspondence and reprint requests
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 361-379
"Environmental enrichment" is often considered to improve captive animal welfare. However, some studies using male mice, Mus musculus, indicate that increasing cage complexity increases aggression. Limited evidence suggests that enrichment differs in its effects on behaviour and physiology between strains; but behaviour also differs between strains in non-enriched environments. Differences in enrichment type, evaluation methods, and strains used, have caused difficulty in interpreting the efficacy of environmental enrichment in improving welfare. Using enrichment suitable for commercial laboratories (nesting material and a Perspex tunnel), we compared within-cage behavioural and physiological responses among males of six strains housed in non-enriched standard polypropylene cages with those housed in "enriched" cages. Outbred ICR(CD-1) and TO mice, and inbred BALB/c mice were more aggressive than C57BL/6, CBA/Ca and DBA/2 mice, which exhibited low levels of aggression typical of most inbred strains. Enrichment did not significantly affect aggression levels. Animals in enriched cages spent more time investigating the internal cage environment, eating and drinking, and in stereotypic behaviour patterns, although levels differed between strains. The greatest increase in stereotypy levels (bar-related stereotypies) with enrichment was found in DBA/2 mice. Higher testosterone levels were maintained over the study period in mice housed in enriched cages, and in more aggressive strains. IgG levels were also higher in mice housed in enriched cages, and in the outbred strains ICR(CD-1) and TO compared with inbred strains. The relationship between aggression, testosterone and "enrichment" suggests that increasing complexity in laboratory cages may increase a naturally selected territorial response in some strains. The implications for strain-specific welfare are discussed.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, enrichment, mice, physiology, strain differences
TOWER OF BABEL: VARIATION IN ETHICAL APPROACHES, CONCEPTS OF WELFARE AND ATTITUDES TO GENETIC MANIPULATION
M C Appleby
Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 381-390
Attitudes to animal biotechnology are diverse, partly because people have different viewpoints and often do not recognize or acknowledge this to be so. First, people adopt different ethical approaches. If an opponent of genetic manipulation says "I don"t like the idea of altering animals" biology" and a proponent replies "...;but it is useful", they are failing to communicate, because one is asking whether the action is right or wrong, whereas the other emphasizes the consequences. Another approach focuses on the person carrying out the action. Many people have hybrid views combining elements of these different approaches. Second, people"s concepts of welfare vary, emphasizing animal minds, bodies or natures &endash; or a combination of these. A proponent who argues that a particular genetic change will not cause suffering is unlikely to reassure an opponent who puts more emphasis on naturalness than on feelings or health. An improved dialogue, in which people attempt to understand one another"s viewpoints, may enable common principles to be established and practical measures to be taken that enable more cooperation in attempts to improve both human and animal welfare.
Keywords: animal rights, animal welfare, deontology, ethics, genetics, utilitarianism
A BREEDING GOAL TO IMPROVE THE WELFARE OF SHEEP
D R Scobie*, A R Bray and D O"Connell
AgResearch, PO Box 60, Lincoln 8152, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 391-406
A polled sheep with a short tail, and devoid of wool on the head, legs, belly and breech, has been proposed as a breeding goal (Scobie et al 1997). This paper examines the practical and welfare implications of such an objective. Mean shearing times were significantly (P < 0.001) slower for control Romney (97s) and Coopworth (88s) ewe hoggets compared to times for both breeds after they were "trimmed" to resemble the breeding goal (47s). Romney wethers were slower to shear than ewes (P < 0.001), but trimmed wethers (53s) were much faster to shear than the untrimmed controls (99s). Trimmed sheep produced less wool (pooled mean weights of fleece wool for trimmed sheep vs total wool for controls being 2.5 vs 3.5 kg; P < 0.001), half the difference (ie 500g) consisting of lower value oddment wools from the untrimmed controls. Tails were docked to 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 per cent of the distance between the base of the tail and the hock of Perendale lambs, and 0, 20, 40 and 60 per cent on Coopworths. More dags accumulated as the tail stump increased in length, although significance was dependent on the time of year and management system. No flystrike (cutaneous myiasis) was observed in Perendales given physical and chemical protection, while a small proportion of all tail lengths were flystruck in Coopworths given only physical protection. When shorn as hoggets, the time taken to shear Perendale ewes increased with increasing tail length (P < 0.001). Provided the undocked short tail is bare of wool, the proposed breeding goal should deliver an economic solution to sheep breeders attempting to satisfy markets conscious of chemical residue and animal welfare issues in the new millennium.
Keywords: animal welfare, dags, fleece cover, flystrike, tail length
SHOULD YOU CLONE YOUR DOG?
AN ANIMAL RIGHTS PERSPECTIVE ON SOMACLONING
G Varner
Department of Philosophy, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-4237, USA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 407-420
This paper uses the Missyplicity Project"s detailed Code of Bioethics as a starting point for discussion of animal rights perspectives on cloning. Although funded by a couple in order to clone their pet dog, the project has more important collateral goals and forms part of a general line of research that, if successful, promises enormous clinical benefits to humans.
A particular type of animal rights perspective is described and used to evaluate this project. This perspective accepts a "principle of axiological anthropocentrism" (PAA), according to which only human beings have certain interests, or a kind of value, which is of pre-eminent moral significance. The best-known animal rights views (those of Singer and Regan) are shown to be consistent with the PAA. This perspective also denies that potential characteristics qualify their possessors for the same type of moral respect as actualized characteristics.
The balancing of potential benefits against risks to research subjects is discussed and it is concluded that, from the particular ethical perspective adopted in this paper, cloning research of this general type is not particularly problematic; and, given its stringent Code of Bioethics, only an abolitionist perspective could condemn the Missyplicity Project in particular.
Keywords: animal rights, animal welfare, cloning, ethics
THE WELFARE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USING TRANSGENIC MICE TO BIOASSAY FOR BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY
E S Jenkins* and R D Combes
FRAME, Russell & Burch House, 96-98 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 421-431
Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders, epitomized by the recent bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic in cattle and the emergence of a novel variant of Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (vCJD) in humans. In prion disease, the agent of infection is believed to be composed of proteinaceous particles, termed prions, which are converted from a normal isoform into a pathogenic isoform during pathogenesis. A bioassay to detect pathogenic prions of BSE in bovine products consumed by humans was unattainable until the development of transgenic mice, due to the significantly lower susceptibility of wild-type mice to BSE. Transgenic mice have now been generated which express the bovine prion protein and are susceptible to BSE. Following an intracerebral injection with brain homogenate of BSE-infected cattle, transgenic mice develop numerous clinical signs of prion disease, including truncal ataxia (inability to coordinate the torso's muscular activity), increased tone of the tail, generalized tremor, and lack of a forelimb extensor response.
In this study, the ethical score system devised by Porter (1992) was applied to the BSE bioassay as a tool for identifying welfare issues affecting animals used in the bioassay. We acknowledge that there are limitations to the use of the information arising from the application of the Porter scoring scheme for assessing the justification to proceed with any animal experiment; notwithstanding these problems, however, our application of the Porter model to the BSE bioassay enabled us to identify potential targets for refinement: pain involved, duration of distress and the duration of the experiment. This was despite lenient scoring for the duration of distress and pain experienced by the mice, and optimal scoring for the quality of animal care. The targets identified for refinement are discussed in relation to the method of inoculation, the duration of the bioassay, and the duration of the clinical phase, with the objective of exploring ways of reducing the severity of the bioassay.
Keywords: animal welfare, BSE bioassay, prion disease, transgenic mice
SCORE SHEETS FOR THE MONITORING OF TRANSGENIC MICE
C Mertens¹* and T R*licke²
1 Z*rcher Tierschutz, Z*richbergstrasse 263, CH-8044, Z*rich, Switzerland
2 Central Biological Laboratory (BZL), University Hospital of Z*rich, Sternwartstrasse 6, CH-8091, Z*rich, Switzerland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints at: Bergstrasse 19, CH-8400, Winterthur, Switzerland
Abstract Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 433-438
The widespread use of transgenic animals in research, and especially for generating models of human disease, has given rise to calls for a careful documentation of transgenic strains with particular emphasis on characterizing phenotypes and their animal welfare aspects. Based upon several published suggestions for general health monitoring of laboratory animals and upon a questionnaire we developed for the characterization of transgenic strains, score sheets for litter-wise and individual data collection were tested in a pilot study. The documentation concept and some of the most important parameters are presented and discussed with respect to their feasibility and usefulness. The use of score sheets can help in determining the application of humane end points at the individual level, phenotype characterization and assessment of animal welfare for the whole strain, and the development of better breeding strategies &endash; apart from being of direct scientific interest. We suggest that these score sheets, available via the Internet at: www.bzl.unizh.ch/de/database/formtransg/ index2.html, should be applied for routine and comprehensive phenotype characterizations of transgenic mouse strains used and kept for animal experimentation.
Keywords: mice, phenotype assessment, score sheet, transgenic animals, welfare assessment
