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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 7 Abstracts
MEASURING PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR ANIMAL WELFARE LEGISLATION: A CASE STUDY OF CAGE EGG PRODUCTION
R Bennett
Department of Agricultural and Food Economics, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AR, UK
Final acceptance: 6 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 1-10
A contingent valuation survey of 2000 people in Great Britain was conducted to find out about people's concerns about farm animal welfare and their willingness to pay to support legislation to phase out the use of cages in egg production in the European Union (EU) by 2005. The survey found that respondents were concerned about a range of farm animal welfare issues, and that the majority supported the proposed legislation and stated that they were willing to pay a significant increase on the current price of eggs to support it. People's willingness to pay to support the legislation would appear to outweigh the extra resource costs of producing eggs without using cages. However, possible sources of bias in the survey and the validity of the willingness to pay measure estimated are discussed. It is concluded that such measures must be interpreted with caution, but can be useful indicators of people's concerns about animal welfare issues and their preferences for public policies on animal welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, contingent valuation survey, egg production, legislation, public concerns, willingness to pay
PREFERENCES FOR NEST BOXES AS ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT FOR LABORATORY MICE
H A Van de Weerd¹*, P L P Van Loo¹, L F M Van Zutphen¹, J M Koolhaas¹ and V Baumans¹
1 Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
2 Department of Animal Physiology, University of Groningen, Haren, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 4 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 11-25
In nature, mice live in burrows with nest chambers where they breed and may hide from predators. In the laboratory, a shelter or refuge is an easily applicable form of enrichment which may enhance the welfare of laboratory mice by giving them more control over their environment. Six nest boxes made of different materials were evaluated in a preference test with male and female mice of two strains (C57BL/6J and BALB/c). In general, mice showed a preference for cages with a nest box made of grid metal as compared to clear or white perspex nest boxes, or no nest box. They also showed a preference for a cage with a nest box of perforated metal as compared to nest boxes made of grey PVC or sheet metal, or no nest box. When offered a nest box with one open side or a nest box with two open sides, most mice preferred the nest box with one open side and were observed to lie in it with their heads directed towards the opening.
The results of this study show that nest boxes may be used for enrichment purposes in caged mice, although it is not yet entirely clear what are the main features influencing the animals' preferences. When providing nest boxes as shelters, the structure and design of this type of enrichment should be taken into account, because these may have an effect on the social structure of groups of mice.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental enrichment, mice, nest boxes, preference tests
PREFERENCE TESTING OF SUBSTRATES BY GROWING PIGS
V E Beattie¹*, N Walker¹, I A Sneddon²
1 Agricultural Research Institute of Northern Ireland, Hillsborough, Co. Down BT26 6DR
2 School of Psychology, The Queen's University of Belfast, BT7 1NN
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 24 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 27-34
The preferences of growing pigs for substrates were investigated by giving small groups of pigs a choice between two substrates in each test. The seven substrates examined were concrete, mushroom compost (spent), peat, sand, sawdust, straw and woodbark. Thirteen comparisons of pairs of substrates were tested with four replicates of each comparison. Eleven-week-old pigs (in groups of six) were placed in specially designed choice pens where they had access to two different substrates. The pigs were allowed to habituate to the pen for 1 week and at the end of week 2 the substrates were swapped. In weeks 2 and 3 the time spent by the pigs in each substrate was recorded. Peat, mushroom compost and sawdust were preferred most, with sand next and woodbark and straw being preferred only to concrete. It is suggested that growing pigs may be attracted to substrates which are similar in texture to earth.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, pigs, preference, substrates
MINIMALLY INVASIVE HEALTH MONITORING OF WILDLIFE
J E Cooper
Centre Vétérinaire des Volcans, BP 105, Ruhengeri, Rwanda, Central Africa*
* Present address: Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), Department of Biosciences, The University, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
Final acceptance: 12 January 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998 7: 35-44
Investigations of free-living wild animals often involve capture, restraint or other forms of manipulation. There is a need, on both scientific and welfare grounds, to develop and to use less invasive techniques, especially for the assessment of health. Already some such procedures exist, ranging from observation of clinical signs to the laboratory examination and analysis of faeces and other naturally voided samples.
Minimally invasive and non-invasive health monitoring of vertebrate animals is outlined and examples are given of samples from mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish that can provide useful information.
Keywords: animal welfare, wildlife, health monitoring, vertebrates
EFFECTS OF WINTER HOUSING, EXERCISE, AND DIETARY TREATMENTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE OF RED DEER (CERVUS ELAPHUS) HINDS
J C Pollard and R P Littlejohn
AgResearch, Invermay Agricultural Centre, Private Bag 50034, Puddle Alley, Mosgiel, New Zealand
Final acceptance: 3 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 45-56
To assess the welfare of red deer (Cervus elaphus) confined at pasture or in indoor housing over winter, behaviour, productivity, skin damage and adrenal response to ACTH challenge were measured in six groups of eight weaner hinds over 91 days from June to September 1990 in Otago, New Zealand. The hinds were confined either indoors (I), indoors with daily exercise (IE), or outdoors (O); (n = 2 groups to each treatment). All groups were fed concentrate ad libitum plus 100g lucerne head-1 day-1.
Indoor confinement was associated with a greater incidence of nosing/chewing other hinds, aggression, chewing of the enclosure, and closer distances between individuals, compared with outdoor confinement (P<0.05). Ad libitum provision of hay over a 2-week period reduced the incidence of chewing of indoor enclosures (P<0.01). Weight gain was greater for indoor groups than outdoor groups in August and September (P<0.05) and overall weight gains for indoor groups (from two weeks into the study, until the end) were higher for the exercise treatment (P<0.05). Intake of concentrates did not differ significantly between treatments. Skin damage was greater for indoor than outdoor groups (P<0.05), and positively related to weight gain (P<0.01) and receiving aggression (P<0.01), which in turn was negatively related to liveweight (P<0.001). A negative relationship was found between pre-challenge levels of plasma cortisol and the number of aggressive interactions received (P<0.05). Pre-challenge cortisol was greater for IE than I (P<0.05), and the increase in cortisol post-challenge was greater for outdoor groups than indoor groups (P<0.01). Conclusions were that indoor confinement had a positive effect on weight gain, but increased aggression and skin damage, indicating that the deer were compromised socially. Provision of ample forage reduced chewing of the walls. The slightly greater weight gain in IE compared with I deserves further investigation.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, confinement, farming, red deer
BEHAVIOUR OF A CAPTIVE PAIR OF CLOUDED LEOPARDS (NEOFELIS NEBULOSA): INTRODUCTION WITHOUT INJURY
G Law* and P Tatner
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Paisley, High Street, Paisley, PA1 2BE, Scotland, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 17 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 57-76
The behaviour of a captive pair of clouded leopards was studied during a series of manipulations in order to devise a safe method of introduction for mating purposes. Manipulations consisted of allowing each individual unrestricted access to the other's outdoor enclosure, initially in the absence of the other individual, but culminating in joint access. Dominant activities involved sitting, lying, grooming, and adopting a low profile amongst the vegetation. The female tended to be more arboreal than the male, although both cats spent most of their time on the ground. The male marked various sites by foot-scrubbing (1&endash;4% occurrence), which involved shuffling urine into the ground using his hind feet. This was less common in the female (<1%). Male foot-scrubbing was most frequent on introduction nights, and in the female's enclosure. Both sexes exhibited cheek-marking behaviour, although it was more common in the male. The frequency of male cheek-marking increased in response to urine production by the female. Observations during introductions suggested that the male may assess the female's reproductive condition by stimulating her to urinate. The most marked changes in the behaviour occurred between control and introduction nights. The larger male took the initiative, and the female appeared extremely wary of his presence, striking out with her claws if he approached too closely. Although the individuals did not mate during the introductions, the method of gradual acquaintance through an experimentally induced overlap of 'home ranges' was effective, as the female was not injured even though the male had a history of aggression.
Keywords: animal welfare, captive breeding, carnivore breeding behaviour, cheek-marking, clouded leopards, endangered species, foot-scrubbing
CHARACTERIZATION OF MILK CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS AS A MEASURE OF SHORT-TERM STRESS RESPONSES IN LACTATING DAIRY COWS
G A Verkerk¹*, A M Phipps², J F Carragher², L R Matthews² and K Stelwagen³
1 Dairying Research Corporation Limited, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
2 Animal Behaviour and Welfare Research Centre, AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
3 Lactational Physiology Programme, Dairy Science Group, AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: Dairying Research Corporation Limited, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
Final acceptance: 3 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 77-86
This study compares cortisol concentrations in plasma and milk over a time-span of 1-4h following injection of an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or a physiological stressor. Its aim was to characterize the usefulness of milk cortisol concentrations as short-term measures of acute stress.
Experiment 1: three groups of lactating cows (Groups B &endash; D; n = 5, each) were injected with ACTH1-24 at 4, 2 and 1h before milking, respectively, so that each experienced a similar period of elevated adrenocortical activity, but presented at milking with varying plasma cortisol concentrations. Another group (Group A; n = 5) was a saline-treated control. Mean plasma cortisol concentrations at milking were 7, 8, 24 and 56ng ml-1 for Groups A, B, C and D, respectively. Mean cortisol concentrations in milk were similar for Groups A and B (1.2 and 0.5 ng ml-1, respectively), higher in Group C (2.4ng ml-1), and greatest in Group D (11.7 ng ml-1; P<0.001).
Experiment 2: lactating dairy cows (n = 15) were injected with ACTH, transported by truck, or blood-sampled only (control) during the 2h before milking. Mean plasma cortisol concentrations at milking were 6, 20 and 72 ng ml-1 following control, ACTH and transport treatments, respectively; mean concentrations of cortisol in milk displayed a similar pattern (1.1, 2.4 and 12.0 ng ml-1, respectively; P<0.001).
Milk cortisol concentrations were highly correlated with plasma levels at milking, but did not reflect those situations where, following a period of elevation within the previous 4h, plasma cortisol concentrations had returned to basal levels. Concentrations of cortisol in foremilk and composite milk were highly correlated, but the mechanisms of cortisol flux may differ between these two compartments. Milk cortisol concentration can be a useful indicator of responses of lactating cows to acute stressors which act up to 2h before collection of samples.
Keywords: ACTH, animal welfare, cortisol, dairy cow, milk, plasma, stress, transport
AN OBSERVATIONAL COHORT STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF CATCHING METHOD ON CARCASE REJECTION RATES IN BROILERS
C Ekstrand
Department of Animal Environment and Health, Section of Animal Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P O Box 234, SE - 532 23 Skara, Sweden
Final acceptance: 9 September 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 87-96
Automatic broiler catching machines have been developed for several reasons. Manual catching is expensive, often rough and may cause injury to the birds. Apart from animal welfare considerations, the demand for good quality meat means that rejection rates must be kept at a low level. The poor working conditions for manual catching teams are also an important factor. Only a few scientific studies on the effects of catching machines on bird health and welfare have been published. In this study, the carcase rejection rates in relation to manual and mechanical catching were compared at a poultry abattoir following a change of loading and unloading systems. The effect on the level of birds found 'dead on arrival' at the slaughterhouse initially varied considerably, regardless of catching method. During the last 3-month period of the study however, mechanically caught flocks showed significantly higher frequencies of dead birds on arrival than manually caught flocks. During the same last period, when running-in problems should be regarded as solved, the prevalence of bruises was also still significantly higher in the mechanically caught flocks, whereas the prevalence of fractures did not differ significantly between the two groups. This suggests that there are still opportunities for further improvements of the machine, although in Sweden it has now been accepted for commercial use in accordance with Swedish animal welfare legislation, under the supervision of the National Board of Agriculture.
Keywords: animal welfare, automatic, downgrading, harvester, machine, manual
ANXIOLYTIC DRUGS INHIBIT HYPERTHERMIA INDUCED BY HANDLING IN FARMED SILVER FOXES (VULPES VULPES)
R O Moe¹ and M Bakken²
1 Research Farm, Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, Rustadveien 131, N-1380 Heggedal, Norway
2 Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, PO Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway
Final acceptance: 20 February 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 97-100
As a contribution to the ongoing work aiming to improve welfare in farmed silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes), the present study attempted to investigate stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) as a physiological indicator of fear or anxiety in this species. Measuring rectal temperature (Trec) served as a stressor and immediately elicited SIH. Then, the foxes received either the anxiolytic drugs, diazepam or buspirone, or sterile saline. Trec in the foxes treated with diazepam and buspirone was significantly lower 90min after treatment. The results indicate that SIH induced by handling was attenuated by anxiolytic drugs, which supports the hypothesis that anxiety contributes to the development of SIH.
Keywords: animal welfare, fear, silver fox, stress-induced hyperthermia
HOUSING AND WELFARE IN LABORATORY RATS: THE WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL ISOLATION AND SOCIAL CONTACT AMONG FEMALES
J L Hurst¹*, C J Barnard², C M Nevison² and C D West³
1 Division of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst, Neston, South Wirral L64 7TE, UK
2 Behaviour and Ecology Research Group, School of Biology, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
3 Chester Zoo, Chester, Cheshire CH2 1LH, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 2 October 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 121-136
Female laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus: Wistar, Alderley Park) were housed as singletons or groups of three in units of two cages. Units were divided by different types of barrier which allowed varying degrees of social contact across the barrier. Singletons were established either with another singleton on the other side of the barrier or with a group of three as neighbours. Single-housing among females had markedly less effect on time budgeting and pathophysiological measures than among males in a similar, earlier study. In particular, singletons showed a less marked increase in self-directed behaviours, particularly tail chasing, and a smaller reduction in undirected movement around the cage. The smaller reduction in mobility may reflect a greater tendency for singly housed females to attempt escape. Females generally showed much higher levels of escape-oriented behaviours than males and up to a threefold increase in such behaviours when housed singly. Differences in time budgeting and in the apparent significance of social separation between the sexes can be interpreted in terms of differences in socio-sexual strategy and potential mating opportunity, with singleton males responding to their cage as a territory, but singleton females seeking to re-establish social contact. Such an interpretation is consistent with the effects of barrier type on behaviour in singleton females, in which time spent in escape-oriented behaviours reflected the extent to which the barrier facilitated, or frustrated, contact with neighbours.
Keywords: animal welfare, female, isolation, pathophysiology, rat, Rattus norvegicus, time budget
THE EFFECTS OF HANDLING ON BEHAVIOURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO HOUSING IN TETHER-STALLS AMONG PREGNANT PIGS
V Pedersen¹*, J L Barnett², P H Hemsworth², E A Newman² and B Schirmer²
1 Zoological Institute, Department of Population Biology, University of Copenhagen, C/O PFR-NORTH, Hundelevvej 75, 9480 Løkken, Denmark
2 Victorian Institute of Animal Science, Agriculture Victoria, 475 Mickleham Road, Attwood, Victoria 3049, Australia
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 9 June 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 137-150
Twenty-four primiparous pregnant pigs were randomly assigned to three handling treatments: Minimal, Positive and Negative. The pigs were moved individually to indoor concrete-floored partial stalls with neck-tethers, 2 days before handling commenced. Positive (stroking and patting on approach to an experimenter) and Negative (brief electric shock of
In the Positive treatment, the amount of physical contact between pig and handler increased during the course of the experiment, while the amount of physical contact did not change in the Negative treatment. There were no effects of treatment on behavioural responses in the arena test. The average daytime concentration of free plasma cortisol was lower in the Positive treatment than in the Negative or Minimal treatments. The Positive treatment also showed lower total and free plasma cortisol concentrations pre- and post- human proximity when compared with the Negative treatment. No differences were found between treatments in total and free plasma cortisol concentrations following an ACTH challenge. The immunological response was greater in the Positive treatment compared with the Negative treatment and tended to be greater when compared with the Minimal treatment.
It was concluded that the nature of the human-animal relationship affected the physiological stress responses of pregnant pigs to tether-housing. Indications are that a positive human-animal relationship would obviate some of the negative effects of being kept in tether-stalls by lowering the basal cortisol concentration and by increasing immunological responsiveness.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, human-animal relationship, immunology, pigs, tether housing, stress
ENRICHING THE LIVES OF ZOO ANIMALS, AND THEIR WELFARE: WHERE RESEARCH CAN BE FUNDAMENTAL
M H Robinson
National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20008, USA
Final acceptance: 10 July 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 151-175
As zoos have evolved, conservation and conservation education have become primary tasks. To achieve the maximum educational impact, zoos are enriching animal habitats so that their occupants display a wide range of activities that are attractive to the visitor, and unattractive activities are eliminated and reduced. Because public perceptions of the attractiveness of animal behaviour may not coincide with welfare realities, there can be a tension between the requirements of desirable exhibits and those of maximally promoting animal welfare. Zoo animals differ from domesticated animals in human care in several respects. These differences are discussed and set in the context of the sometimes competing aims of enhancing welfare and promoting educational exhibits. An outline history of zoo enrichment programmes suggests that the subject is in need of systematization. The range of data available for improving zoo exhibit designs, and the lives of zoo animals, is reviewed. It is concluded that fundamental data on the environmental needs of many of the wild animals maintained in zoos are deficient in many important areas. Consequently, there is an urgent need to increase such research. Zoo habitats could be excellent places for such fundamental studies, which would feed back into field studies. At the same time, habitat enrichment in zoos cannot await such research and must proceed pragmatically using the range of insights described in this paper. In particular, functional substitution is advocated as a means of enrichment wherever this can be made acceptable to the broad public; its educational value in combatting naive anthropomorphism is stressed. Naturalism in enrichment is criticized as reinforcing anthropomorhisms, but is desirable for promoting global habitat conservation.
Keywords: animal welfare, enrichment, exhibit design, research, zoos
A BALANCE DEVICE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS OF THE MOUSE
F Schlingmann¹*, H A Van de Weerd², V Baumans², R Remie¹ and L F M Van Zutphen²
1 Solvay Duphar, Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Weesp, The Netherlands
2 Utrecht University, Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Utrecht, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 4 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 177-188
A device for analysing mouse behaviour which is based on recording the movements of the animal in a balance test cage has been developed. The amplitude patterns provoked by the movements of the animal correlate with behavioural patterns. The system not only allows differentiation between five behavioural categories: resting, grooming, eating, locomotion and climbing &endash; but also indicates the location of the animal in its cage. Upon validation, the system has proven to be a reliable and time-saving device for the non-invasive recording of behavioural patterns in the mouse.
Keywords: animal welfare, balance device, behavioural analysis, behavioural patterns, circadian rhythm, mice.
THE SURVIVAL AND WELFARE OF HEDGEHOGS (ERINACEUS EUROPAEUS) AFTER RELEASE BACK INTO THE WILD
N J Reeve
School of Life Sciences, Roehampton Institute London, West Hill, London SW15 3SN, UK
Final acceptance: 3 April 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 189-202
The fate of rescued hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) released back to the wild has now been the subject of several follow-up studies. Although subject to various hazards, released hedgehogs have clearly shown essential 'life-skills'. However, all previous studies have involved releases into hedgehog-rich areas and the observed long-range („ 500m) dispersal movements shown by some subjects, of up to 5km, may be a consequence of local intraspecific competition. This study has reduced a number of potentially confounding subject variables and provides follow-up data on 12 age-matched female hedgehogs with similar histories. A main group (n = 10) was released into a rural woodland area (Surrey, UK) of low natural hedgehog density, and radio-tracked for up to 108 days. A pilot release of two animals in an urban area with an established hedgehog population also took place (tracked for 109 and 131 days respectively). Most of the main group dispersed (up to 3km) from the release site; the two animals in the urban site did not. These data, taken with those from previous studies, suggest that dispersal is not specifically the result of intraspecific competition. Overall survival at week 8 was 42 per cent (5 hedgehogs) plus two lost animals. This is comparable with previous studies. However, survival fell to 25 per cent (3 animals) plus two lost animals by week 15. Of seven recorded deaths, only one was the result of a failure to thrive and all other mortalities were accidental: four road deaths, one drowned in a pond and one predation. The study concludes that the hazards of the human environment were the principal threat to the welfare and survival of released hedgehogs in the area.
Keywords: animal welfare, Erinaceus europaeus, hedgehog, rehabilitation, survival
PERCHING BEHAVIOUR AND PREFERENCES FOR DIFFERENT PERCH DESIGNS AMONG LAYING HENS
N R Lambe¹* and G B Scott²
1 SAC, Kirkton Farm, Tyndrum, Crianlarich, Perthshire FK20 8RU, UK
2 Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Shropshire TF10 8NB, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 30 July 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 203-216
Non-cage systems for housing laying hens often incorporate a framework of perches, allowing birds to move in three dimensions. Wood is predominantly used for perch construction, because it is relatively cheap and easy to work with. However, wooden perches are difficult to clean and disinfect, which could lead to disease and discomfort for the birds using them. The objectives of this study were to identify which characteristics of perch design are preferred by laying hens; and to test whether birds would use perches of alternative materials for a comparable amount of time as they use wooden perches. Six laying hens were housed individually in litter-floored pens and were offered a choice of three pairs of contrasting perch types (experiments 1-3): a rectangular, wooden perch ('control') versus two, thin, parallel, rectangular wooden perches; 'control' versus a similar perch covered with foam and fabric; and 'control' versus a round, wooden perch. Birds were given each pair of perches twice, controlling for perch position in the pen. Time spent on each perch in a 48h period was determined from video records. Preferences were then tested in consecutive trials (experiments 4-5) between perches of the following materials: wood versus plastic versus steel; and wood versus textured aluminium. There were no significant differences in time spent on different perches, suggesting that birds had no preferences between perch types. The implications of these results could be important for the design of alternative systems for laying hens. Birds may be content to perch on artificial materials which could be more hygienic than wood and easier to maintain in a commercial system.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, laying hens, perches
THE HEALTH, HAEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD BIOCHEMISTRY OF FREE-RANGING FARM CATS IN RELATION TO SOCIAL STATUS
D W Macdonald*, N Yamaguchi and W C Passanisi
Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK.
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 18 November 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 243-256
In order to test the hypothesis that social parameters within carnivore societies are correlated with health status, a profile is presented of the general health, haematology and blood biochemistry of a colony of free-living feral farm cats (Felis silvestris catus). Samples and biochemical data were collected between late November and early December 1989. A higher proportion of adult males than females was found to be clinically abnormal. Social status (Central or Peripheral) had a significant effect on female mouth condition, but not on male mouth condition. Eosinophilia (34.6% of individuals), high fibrinogen levels (19.2%) and low haemoglobin levels (28.8%) were significantly more likely to occur in clinically abnormal than in clinically normal cats. Blood biochemistry varied with age and, among adults only, varied between the sexes. Haematological measurements varied significantly with age and sex. There were no haematological effects of social status in males, but in females social status affected reticulocyte, neutrophil, eosinophil and white blood cell (WBC) counts. We interpret variation in health and haematology in terms of the differences in social status and reproductive tactics.
Keywords: feral cat, haematology, blood biochemistry, general health, social status
HEART RATE AND STRESS HORMONE RESPONSES OF SHEEP TO ROAD TRANSPORT FOLLOWING TWO DIFFERENT LOADING PROCEDURES
R F Parrott*, S J G Hall¹ and D M Lloyd
MAFF Welfare and Behaviour Laboratory, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB2 4AT, UK
1 Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK, and now School of Agriculture and Horticulture, De Montfort University, Grantham, Lincs NG32 3EP
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 9 September 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 257-267
This study was designed to investigate the physiological responses induced in sheep (n = 18) by two different loading techniques followed by a short road journey. All animals were prepared with venous catheters, to minimize the disturbing effects of blood sampling, and nine sheep were fitted with heart rate monitors. The animals were loaded onto a transport vehicle in groups of three, alternately using a conventional tailgate ramp or a crate raised with a hydraulic lift. When all of the sheep were loaded, they were taken on a journey lasting 195min. Blood samples were collected in the home pen, directly after loading, and at 15min intervals during the journey. Measurements were made of plasma concentrations of cortisol, prolactin and catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline). The results indicated that heart rate increased during loading, regardless of the method used. No changes in concentrations of cortisol or the catecholamines were detected, although a small increase in prolactin was noted when animals were loaded using the ramp. During transport, all sheep exhibited increases in plasma cortisol concentrations which were greatest during the first 2h of the journey. The results suggest that, under the conditions employed in this experiment, the effects of the two loading procedures were similar and that transport appeared to be more stressful than loading.
Keywords: animal welfare, handling, heart rate, road transport, sheep, stress hormones
THE CONTROL OF ZOO POPULATIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PRIMATES
A R Glatston
Rotterdam Zoo, Postbus 532, 3000 AM Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Final acceptance: 15 January 1998
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 269-281
Modern zoos are increasingly successful in maintaining and breeding exotic species. Many of the animals bred in captivity cannot be housed in their natal zoo nor in other recognized zoos in the region. These 'surplus' animals create a problem as zoos only have limited space at their disposal. The options open in this situation are to avoid the problem by preventing the animals from breeding (sterilization or contraception) or to dispose of the surplus animals (euthanasia; or transfer either to institutions not recognized by any national zoo federation or to a zoo outside the region, possibly using the services of an animal dealer). The pros and cons of all these options are evaluated in terms of practicality, welfare and ethics. In many cases, the judicious use of a combination of contraception and euthanasia would seem the most acceptable choice from an animal welfare point of view. Nevertheless, it is believed that considerably more research is needed into the methods and welfare aspects of contraception and sterilization.
Keywords: animal welfare, contraception, euthanasia, zoo population control
FENCE LINE PACING IN FARMED RED DEER HINDS AT CALVING
J C Pollard*, A Grant and R P Littlejohn,
AgResearch, Invermay Agricultural Centre, Private Bag 50034, Mosgiel, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and reprints
Final acceptance: 27 November 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 283-291
The frequency, intensity and location of fence line pacing were observed daily, in four groups of six farmed red deer hinds, over a 3-week period at calving. The groups were confined in neighbouring paddocks (5000m2 in area; two containing a wooden shelter) adjacent to deer yards containing an observation hide. At 1100h, a person entered each paddock to weigh, sex and tag newborn calves.
Pacing (moving parallel to and within 0.5m of a fence line) was mainly at walking speed, and its frequency differed according to the time relative to parturition. It was recorded in 13.6 (± 1.09) per cent of observations during the period 2-4 to days before calving, increased to 27.6 (± 1.9) per cent on the day before birth and then declined to 4.6 (± 0.39) per cent for the period of 0-3 days after calving. Pacing relative to total movement was greater before (65.7%) than after (43.5%) parturition (SED 3.7%; P < 0.001), indicating that it was not just a consequence of greater activity before birth. The hinds were observed to be grouped together rather than distributed randomly, but when some of the hinds were pacing, groups were spread out over more quarters of the paddock than when none were pacing (P < 0.001). However, there was no definite suggestion of avoidance of other deer. Within each group, most pacing occurred along certain fence lines, but no general pattern was observed. Regardless of whether hinds had given birth or not, there were graded increases in pacing depending on the degree of human presence (not present
Keywords: animal welfare, farming, fence line pacing, parturition, red deer
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CAUSING SICKNESS BEHAVIOUR AND SUFFERING IN DISEASED ANIMALS
N G Gregory
Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Final acceptance: 15 December 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 293-305
Disease is one of the most important causes of animal suffering. When diseases are treated the aim is to achieve rapid and permanent recovery and this helps to reduce the duration of suffering. It does not, however, alleviate suffering during the fulminant and recovery phases. Greater attention needs to be given to alleviating suffering and the signs of sickness during disease states. In this paper, the role of the cytokines in mediating sickness behaviour and suffering during disease is reviewed. The importance of sickness behaviour in improving the chances of recovery are considered, along with the potential use of anti-cytokine strategies in alleviating suffering in disease states.
Keywords: animal welfare, cytokines, disease, interleukins, sickness behaviour, suffering
EFFECT OF WINTER CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF ADULT OSTRICHES (STRUTHIO CAMELUS) ON A BRITISH FARM
D C Deeming
Honorary Research Associate, School of Biological Sciences, c/o 3.329 Stopford Building, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
Address for correspondence and requests for reprints: 17 Rowland Close, Wallingford, Oxon OX10 8LA, UK
Final acceptance: 9 May 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 307-315
Ostrich welfare on farms of is great importance, particularly because little is known about appropriate husbandry conditions for these birds in a northern European environment. Rain has been shown to influence the pattern of behaviour during the spring months. This study examined the effects of four different climatic conditions (raining, dull but overcast, bright but overcast and sunny) on the behaviour of ostriches during the winter. Compared with dry conditions, there was a significantly higher rate of sitting during rainy periods &endash; apparently at the expense of foraging (from pasture) and pacing (around the perimeter). The rate of sitting was much lower than that reported for the same birds during rain in the spring. During all climatic conditions, feeding (on concentrate feed provided) and foraging were the most dominant behaviours. Feeding was not significantly affected by rain but the frequency of foraging was reduced. Standing was a common behaviour. There were significant gender differences for standing (males>females) and foraging (females>males). These results show that winter conditions require ostriches to feed and forage at higher rates than during the spring or summer, presumably to consume more energy for thermoregulation. Gender differences in pacing and feeding behaviours previously observed in breeding birds were absent in non-breeding ostriches (presumably because males were not defending territories); although non-breeding males appeared to be more vigilant than females and needed to consume more food. Improvements in ostrich husbandry should take into account the need to provide both adequate shelter and more concentrate rations during the cold weather of winter. Energy requirements will be higher at this time, yet the ability of the birds to forage will be diminished. Without such considerations, ostrich welfare during the winter in northern Europe will be compromised.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, farming, ostrich, winter weather
FERTILITY CONTROL: AN OPTION FOR NON-LETHAL CONTROL OF WILD CARNIVORES?
F A M Tuyttens* and D W Macdonald
Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 18 November 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 339-364
Three types of fertility control, surgical sterilization, hormonal chemosterilization, and immunosterilization, are reviewed with regard to their potential for controlling problematic populations of carnivores. The fertility control agent and delivery protocol of choice may vary considerably according to: (i) the reason for control; (ii) the degree, urgency and duration of population reduction required; (iii) concerns about ethics and public opinion; and (iv) the status, population dynamics, social structure, mating system, size, behaviour and reproductive endocrinology of the target animals. Although they are often perceived and advocated as more preferable methods of population control than lethal approaches, it is important that wildlife managers as well as members of the public realize that the ethical acceptability of the various fertility control techniques may differ considerably &endash; and that numerous questions regarding their effectiveness, humaneness and ecological safety remain unanswered.
Keywords: animal welfare, carnivore, contraception, fertility control, population control, wildlife management
THE WELFARE OF SLAUGHTER PIGS DURING TRANSPORT
P D Warriss
School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
Final acceptance: 12 May 1998
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 365-381
The welfare of transported pigs can be compromised both by physical and psychological stresses. The animals' responses can be assessed using records of mortality and trauma, physiological and behavioural observations and, to some degree, by measurements of meat quality since this can reflect the animals' physiological state at death. These assessments may, therefore, be used as measures of animal welfare. During transport pigs show weight loss, increased circulating concentrations of catecholamines, cortisol and creatine phosphokinase (CPK), and an increase in heart rate and packed cell volume; sometimes there is evidence of dehydration. Increased levels of dark, firm, dry (DFD ) meat after long transport reflect muscle glycogen depletion and possibly indicate some element of fatigue. There is experimental evidence that transport is aversive to pigs, which may be partially due to the fact that they become travel sick. Mortality in transport has ranged from < 0.1 to > 1.0 per cent in different European countries. Mortality is higher in more stress-susceptible breeds and at higher ambient temperatures. It is increased in pigs fed within 4h of transport, at higher stocking densities and after longer journeys at ambient temperatures greater than 10ƒC. Pigs may be fasted long enough before slaughter to prejudice their welfare through hunger. Long fasts may also reduce muscle glycogen levels and cause fatigue. Fighting between unfamiliar animals which have been mixed during the marketing procedure is also stressful, however, longer transport may actually reduce this problem by allowing animals to get used to one another under conditions in which it is difficult to fight.
Keywords: animal welfare, pigs, transport
'PLEASURES','PAINS' AND ANIMAL WELFARE: TOWARD A NATURAL HISTORY OF AFFECT
D Fraser*¹ and I J H Duncan²
1 Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Centre for Applied Ethics, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada
2 Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph N1G 2W1, Canada
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 28 May 1998
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 383-396
In hedonic theories of motivation, 'motivational affective states'(MASs) are typically seen as adaptations which motivate certain types of behaviour, especially in situations where a flexible or learned response is more adaptive than a rigid or reflexive one. MASs can be negative (eg unpleasant feelings of hunger or pain) or positive (eg pleasant feelings associated with eating and playing). Hedonic theories often portray negative and positive MASs as opposite ends of a one-dimensional scale.
We suggest that natural selection has favoured negative and positive affect as separate processes to solve two different types of motivational problems. We propose that negative MASs (eg thirst, fear) evolved in response to 'need situations' where the fitness benefit of an action has increased, often because the action is needed to cope with a threat to survival or reproductive success. We propose that these negative MASs develop in response to a change in the body (eg dehydration) or the environment (eg the approach of a predator) which creates the need for action, and that negative MASs can become intense and prolonged if the threat to fitness is high and persistent. We propose that positive MASs evolved in 'opportunity situations' where an action (eg playing, exploring) has become advantageous because the fitness cost of performing it has declined. We propose that these positive MASs occur during, or as a result of, the performance of types of behaviour which are beneficial for fitness at a variety of times, not only when they are required to meet immediate needs; and that the pleasure inherent in the behaviour motivates the animal to perform it when the cost of so doing is sufficiently low. Some behaviour (eg eating) can be motivated by both positive and negative affect. Other behaviour, such as playing or fleeing from a predator, may be motivated largely by positive or negative affect alone. Our hypothesis needs to be tested, but we suggest that it corresponds well to common human experience.
The hypothesis provides a basis for predicting whether an aspect of animal management is likely to cause strong and prolonged negative affect ('suffering'), or to prevent animals from experiencing certain types of pleasure. This distinction is important for bringing animal welfare assessment into line with ethical concerns.
Keywords: affect, animal welfare, emotion, evolution, fitness, motivation, suffering
FEED ADDITIVES: DO THEY ADD TO ANIMAL WELFARE? AN EVALUATION
C J Kan¹*, L P Jager¹ & F J Grommers²
1 Institute for Animal Science and Health (ID-DLO), Postbus 65, 8200 AR Lelystad, The Netherlands
2 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, Interdepartmental Section of Veterinary Medicine and Society, Postbus 80.151, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final Acceptance: 1 April 1998
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 397-414
The welfare of farm animals is strongly influenced by the man-made environment. Welfare problems also arise from reduced homeostatic capacities in animals. Feed additives, used to promote growth or to prevent diseases can alter the animals' self-regulating capacities thus affecting their welfare. The EU regulates the use of these additives within specified groups of Directive 70/524/EEC. Although these feed additives can be regarded as prescription-free veterinary drugs, critical remarks on their desired and adverse effects have received little attention.
A survey of the available literature shows that about one-third of licensed feed additives alter adrenal function in vitro. Reports of the adverse effects of anticoccidial additives in vivo suggest they can be classified under three headings: (i) substances with a very narrow safety margin (the difference between the permitted dose and the dose with adverse effects) and often irreversible effects on growth and feed conversion; (ii) substances with a narrow safety margin and largely reversible effects; (iii) substances with an adequate safety margin. The growth promoters (including antibiotic growth promoters) can &endash; on the basis of their adverse effects &endash; be classified into two groups: (i) substances with a very narrow safety margin; and (ii) substances with an adequate safety margin.
On the one hand, animal welfare considerations require use of disease-preventing additives, but on the other hand, they also demand discontinuation of current practices. Judicious use of additives can add to animal welfare. However, their unlimited use to obscure defects in husbandry is detrimental to animal welfare. A major obstacle to the judicious use of feed additives, is the lack of published, unbiased information on their efficacy and safety for farm animals.
Keywords: animal welfare, antimicrobials, cattle, coccidiostats, growth promoters, pigs, poultryReturn to list of articles
ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT FOR AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS
A J Murray*¹, N K Waran² and R J Young³
1 51 Franks Lane, Chesterton, Cambridge CB4 1RR, UK
2 The Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, Agriculture Building, West Mains Rd, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
3 School of Agriculture and Horticulture, De Montfort University, Caythorpe, Grantham, Lincolnshire NG32 3EP, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 27 September 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 415-425
Many of Australia's nocturnal mammals are rare or endangered in the wild. The behavioural integrity of captive populations of endangered species can be maintained through the application of environmental enrichment techniques. This study investigated the effectiveness of feeding enrichment in promoting behavioural diversity, enclosure usage and species-typical behaviours in the ghost bat (Macroderma gigas) and the yellow-bellied glider (Petaurus australis). Animals were observed for 300 min day-1 over three consecutive time periods: baseline (12 non-consecutive days); enrichment: (12 consecutive days); and post-enrichment: (12 non-consecutive days). The use of a live insect dispenser decreased grooming and increased out-of-sight and social behaviour in the ghost bat. Artificial gum trees promoted species-typical behaviours in the yellow-bellied glider. Enrichment for nocturnal mammals had variable results and different welfare implications for these animals.
Keywords: Australian mammals, enrichment, nocturnal, species-typical, welfare
CALF SITE SELECTION BY RED DEER (CERVUS ELAPHUS) FROM THREE CONTRASTING HABITATS IN NORTH-WEST ENGLAND: IMPLICATIONS FOR WELFARE AND MANAGEMENT
T Birtles¹, C R Goldspink*², S Gibson³ and R K Holland²
1 Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire WA16 6QN, UK
2 Behavioural and Environmental Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M15 GD, UK
3 Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Monkstone House, City Road, Peterborough PE1 JY, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 15 January 1998
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 427-443
This study (1978&endash;93) was concerned with calf site selection by red deer from three contrasting areas (two deer parks and one deer farm) of north-west England. It arose from initial (1960s&endash;70s) concern over poor recruitment and the high incidence of 'abandoned' calves (at one site), and increasing levels of public disturbance in Lyme Park and Tatton Park. A better understanding of calving behaviour could lead to improved management procedures during calving. Habitat selection by adult females was examined indirectly, by recording where calves (0&endash;2 days old) were born in relation to their weight. The deer farm provided a control site, where the effects of their social traditions could be minimized.
Calves were born over a wide area of moorland in Lyme Park but confined to a deer sanctuary in Tatton Park. Areas of obvious plant cover were selected in preference to open ground in Tatton Park and in the deer farm. No marked preferences were apparent in Lyme Park, although some areas were used more frequently than others, over all years. Most calves occurred within female home ranges. In Tatton Park, the heaviest calves were found in the preferred calving sites.
Calf weights varied widely within and between study sites. On average, the smallest (lightest) calves were recorded in Lyme Park and the heaviest in the deer farm. Sex differences in calf weights occurred in Tatton Park, but not at the other two sites. In general, late-born calves were smaller than those born early in the season. Variations in birthweight were linked to differences in female growth and site conditions. In the absence of more detailed statistics, calf weights can provide a useful measure of population performance.
Collectively, these results suggest that red deer can adopt a range of calving behaviours ('tactics') depending on the nature of the habitat (presence or absence of cover), perceived predation 'risks' (levels of disturbance), established social traditions and, possibly, parental investment. Cover appeared to be a primary requirement for calving. In the absence of cover, other behaviours were adopted. In some cases, these behaviours were not in the best interests of the calf, as parent females rarely returned to feed their calves during the day and often engaged in energetically costly diversionary activities. In deer farms, conflicts between hinds may be exaggerated by limited access to ground cover, similar social status and low variance in calf weights.
In view of these findings, there is a need to devise new ways of attracting captive deer to cover, perhaps by modifications to the habitat mosaic. Observations from Tatton Park show that deer readily use refuges (the sanctuary), when available, although it may be difficult to initiate new behaviours where long-established traditions occur (eg Lyme Park). Mortality amongst calves is unacceptable in deer parks, but further work under more controlled conditions, is required to establish the mechanisms of calf site selection. Effective methods of locating calves are desirable for management purposes.
Keywords: animal welfare, calving behaviour, deer farms, deer parks, red deer
DEVELOPING THE ETHICS COMPONENT OF THE UK MODULAR TRAINING SYSTEM FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENTISTS: A LASA WORKSHOP REPORT
M Jennings* and P Hawkins
Research Animals Department, RSPCA, Causeway, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 1HG, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Edited by M Jennings and P Hawkins on behalf of the LASA
Ethics and Project Licence Training Group:
B Howard, University of Sheffield, Field Laboratories, c/o The Medical School, Beech Hill Rd, Sheffield S10 2RX
M Jennings, Research Animals Department, RSPCA, Causeway, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 1HG
M Matfield, Research Defence Society, 58 Great Marlborough St, London, W1V 1DD
G Moore, Pfizer Central Research, Sandwich, Kent CT13 9NJ
B Waynforth, SmithKline Beecham, LAS Department, NFSP-North, Third Ave, Harlow, Essex CM19 5AW
Final acceptance: 4 June 1998
Abstract Animal Welfare 1998, 7: 445-458
This paper presents the report of a LASA workshop on developing the ethics component of the UK modular training system for laboratory animal scientists. The objectives were: (i) to define and agree the goals of ethics training; ii) to set out means of achieving these goals in terms of an appropriate syllabus, effective approaches to training, and the resources necessary; (iii) to define the audience &endash; who should be trained and to what level; and iv) to consider the practicalities and means of assessment of prospective licensees. Although the focus was on the UK system, the issues are similar wherever ethics is taught in the laboratory animal context.
A keynote paper introduced the subjects for discussion and four course organizers then provided examples of current practice. Syndicate group sessions addressed questions in relation to the goals enumerated above. This report represents a summary of the papers, syndicate group discussions and conclusions of the workshop.
Keywords: animal welfare, ethics, trainingReturn to list of articles
