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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 6 Abstracts
LACK OF EVIDENCE FOR STRESS BEING CAUSED TO PIGS BY WITNESSING THE SLAUGHTER OF CONSPECIFICS
M H Anil*, J L McKinstry, M Field and R G Rodway¹
School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK
Department of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 10 July 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 3-8
The effects of witnessing the slaughter of conspecifics on the stress responses of pigs were investigated. Previously catheterized pigs were allowed to see the stunning and sticking (exsanguination) of pigs in a nearby pen. Heart rate was monitored and serial blood samples were taken to assess stress responses. Packed cell volume (PCV), cortisol and ß-endorphin were determined in the samples. In addition, behavioural observations and subjective assessment of animals' responses were made. Although the levels of hormones, PCV and heart rate tended to be generally high due to handling, there were no specific increases in response to witnessing stunning and slaughter. These results suggest that witnessing the slaughter act does not distress pigs.
Keywords: animal welfare, pigs, slaughter, stress
FEAR-MOTIVATED AGGRESSION IN DOGS: PATIENT CHARACTERISTICS, DIAGNOSIS AND THERAPY
S Galac and B W Knol*
University of Utrecht, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Yalelaan 8, PO Box 154, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 15 July 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 9-15
The aim of the study was to characterize dogs in which fear-motivated aggression was diagnosed, to describe the therapy used, and to evaluate the effectiveness of this therapy using a retrospective descriptive study. During the research period 284 dogs were referred for problem behaviour. Fear-motivated aggression was diagnosed in 73 (26%) dogs: intact males (35), castrated males (15), intact females (11) and castrated females (12). The mean age of the animals was 3.4 years ± 2.2 (SD). Mixed-breed dogs were most frequent, followed by Golden Retrievers, Rottweilers and Bernese Mountain Dogs. The majority of the dogs expressed growling, snapping, biting, ears down, tail down and low posture. The aggression occurred mainly inside the house, towards adults of children, and especially when the dog was approached and/or touched. Diagnosis was based on data about the behavioural expressions of the animals, and about owner-dog interactions, obtained from both the owner and our own observation. Treatment consisted of 1) avoiding eliciting stimuli, 2) optimizing owner-dog communication, 3) adaptation of the owner's punishing threats to the dog's response to punishment, and 4) for a certain period fitting the dog with a choker chain connected to a leash during the day. The behaviour of the dogs improved (55; 75%), remained unchanged (13; 18%), or deteriorated (5; 7%). In conclusion, fear-motivated aggression in dogs is likely to be more frequent than generally is assumed. Growling or biting in a low posture towards both adults and children, especially when the animals were approached or touched inside the house, were the main characteristics on which the diagnosis fear-motivated aggression was based. Therapy, mainly based on optimizing communication between owner and dog, proved significantly effective.
Keywords: animal welfare, diagnosis, dog, fear-motivated aggression, therapy
A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF SIMPLE VERSUS COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF GROUP-HOUSED, SUBADULT RHESUS MACAQUES
S J Schapiro*, M A Bloomsmith, S A Suarez and L M Porter
Department of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park, Bastrop, TX 78602, USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 15 April 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 17-28
Enrichment of the environments of captive primates is currently of interest as both a basic and an applied research question, particularly when social and inanimate enhancements are used simultaneously. We measure the behavioural effects of two intensities of inanimate enrichment on 12 unimale-multifemale groups and 12 all-male groups from three cohorts of three to four-year-old rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Half of the groups received a simple, inexpensive enrichment programme while the other groups received a more complex and costly combination of physical and feeding enhancements. Observations were conducted on 93 subadults of both sexes during their initial year of group housing. Intensity of enrichment did not differentially effect the amount of time subject spent in any of the activities analysed. Subjects that received the more complex programme spent only 8.3 per cent of their time using the extra enhancements. Therefore, there was little demonstrated benefit of the more costly enrichment programme. The three cohorts differed in the amount of time that they spent inactive, behaving agonistically, playing and located near a group mate. A planned comparison of one cohort that had been single-housed without visual access to social groups, to the two cohorts that had visual access to social groups during single caging, revealed differences in play and socially-located behaviour, which may have been due to differences in extra-cage conditions two years prior to the present study. When primates are housed socially with conspecifics as `social enhancements', the relatively simple inanimate enrichment programme we used was as effective as the more costly programme. When enrichment resources are limited, inanimate enrichment efforts should be focused on monkeys that are not socially enriched.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental enrichment, group housing, inanimate enrichment, rhesus macaques, social enrichment
BEHAVIOUR OF LAYING HENS NEGOTIATING PERCHES AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS
N R Lambe¹*, G B Scott² and D Hitchcock³
1 Kirkton Farm, Crianlarich, Perthshire FK20 8RU, UK
2 Poultry Science Department, SAC Auchincruive, Ayr KA6 5HW, UK
3 Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, SAC Auchincruive, Ayr KA6 5HW, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 22 May 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 29-41
Research into the responses of hens on perches is important in order to assess the welfare impact of alternative systems for egg production which incorporate perches in their design. Previous studies suggest that many flights and landing accidents occur in such systems as birds attempt to move between perches and facilities, resulting in a high incidence of bone breakage. In this study three horizontal perches were set with a gradient between them of 0, 30, 45 or 60 degrees according to treatment. Four groups of 15 ISABrown laying hens were individually exposed to each treatment, being placed on the uppermost perch (Perch 1) with a food reward available at the lowest perch (Perch 3). Behavious performed before reaching Perch 3 were recorded over time. More birds failed to move to Perch 3 in 10 minutes when perches were separated by 45 or 60 degrees. In birds which stayed on the perches for the full 10 minutes, without reaching Perch 3, downwards head movements, calling, intended jump behaviours, side-stepping and wing-flapping decreased significantly with time spent on the perches. Motivation to complete the task, in order to gain the food reward, was high in all treatments. However, when birds found perches difficult to negotiate, behaviours indicating intention to move to the food decreased with time and the incidence of behaviours indicating frustration and thwarting increased. In non-cage systems such frustration could reduce bird welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, laying hens, perches, slopes
OBSERVATIONS ON THE ELECTRIC LANCE AND THE WELFARE OF WHALES: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL
D K Blackmore¹, P Madie²* and G R G Barnes³
1 The New Zealand Foundation for the Study of the Welfare of Whales, 371 Albert St, Palmerston North, New Zealand
2 Cetacean Investigation Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
3 Department of Physics, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 17 May 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 43-51
Japanese whalers use the electric lance as a secondary method of killing minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata). The lances are dropped into the body, and currents varying between 2.2 and 14.0A, with a mean of 6.8A, are applied.
When currents of 5A were applied to the carcases of dead whales, varying in size from 1.8 to 15.7m in length, no current densities induced in the target organs were sufficient to cause either insensibility (10mA cm2 in the brain), or to cause ventricular fibrillation (0.5mA cm2 in the heart), except in a few cases where electrodes were specifically placed to span the heart. When electrodes were placed in positions normally used in whaling operations, no current densities were produced which would have been sufficient to cause brain and cardiac dysfunction.
Further investigations on changes in current density with time post mortems after application of a controlled current of 5A showed, during a 60 hour period, a fourfold increase in the current density in the heart, and more than a twofold increase in the brain. Thus contrary to previous criticisms, if these studies had been carried out on live animals, all current densities would have been below threshold values.
There are no records of signs of epileptiform seizure, which are associated with an effective electrical stun, in whales subjected to the electric lance.
It is concluded that the electric lance as used in whaling operations is ineffective and likely to cause extra pain and suffering to an already distressed animal.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, brain, conductivity, current density, electric lance, heart, insensibility, pain, ventricular fibrillation, whales
BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS OF CAGE ENRICHMENT IN SINGLE-CAGED ADULT CATS
M de Monte¹* and G Le Pape²
1 Laboratoire de Virologie, 3 rue Koeberle, 67000 Strasbourg, France
2 ANASTAT, 4 rue Louis Apfiel, 67000 Strasbourg, France
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 28 June 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 53-66
The behaviour of 10 adult individually-caged male cats was measured either in their normal cage or with additional objects, a log and a ball. Each cat was observed during five days in each condition. Results show an important novelty effect at the beginning of observations, especially for rubbing and paddling behaviour. Introduction of objects in the cages resulted in a decrease in inactivity and self-play activities, and an increase in sniffing objects and play behaviours with objects. This was particularly important with the ball. Whereas these modifications decreased over days with the log, a high level of activity was maintained with the ball. The importance of the movement and of the function of the object is discussed. An improved way of rearing isolated cats is suggested.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, cats, enrichment, objects
SUCCESSFUL GROUP HOUSING OF WILD-CAUGHT BRUSHTAIL POSSUMS (TRICHOSURUS VULPECULA)
B J McLeod*, E G Thompson, J L Crawford and G H Shackell
AgResearch, Invermay Agricultural Centre, Private Bag 50034, Mosgiel, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 18 July 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 67-76
The common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), introduced from Austrralia about 150 years ago, has become a major pest threatening the native biota of New Zealand. It is also an important disease vector, acting as a wildlife reservoir of infection. Conventional methods of control have had little effect on reducing the national population, so there is a quest to find more effective and humane methods. This has led to an upsurge in research aimed at increasing our knowledge of the biology of this marsupial, with an attendant increase in requirements for access to colony-based animals.
Possums kept for research purposes have often been housed in individual cages, and several colonies have experienced high mortality rates. After capture, possums have shown inappetance, weight loss and a predisposition to infection, suggesting that this species is susceptible to post-capture stress. For our reproductive studies, research animals are only useful if maintained under conditions that ensure behavioural and physiological processes remain normal. We have adopted an `animal husbandry' approach for our possum colony, where social interaction and the ability to exchibit instinctive behaviour patterns are considered as important as adequate nutrition and housing.
In this colony, group-housed possums show no signs of post-capture stress, and mortality rate has been less than one per cent (of >600 animals housed to date). Virtually all possums gain weight over the first month of captivity. Procedures for monitoring, handling and the collection of data from these animals, are carried out with little apparent stress to either animals or staff.
Keywords: animal welfare, brushtail possums, group housing, social well-being, stress
USE OF IN-CAGE SHELTERS BY LABORATORY RATS
P Townsend
Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Central Veterinary Laboratory, New Haw, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
Final acceptance: 25 April 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 95-103
The effect of providing a shelter to single-housed rats was measured in terms of the preference shown for a cage containing a shelter compared with a barren cage, the range of behaviours performed and the apparent fearfulness of the animals. All animals showed a strong preference for cages containing a shelter and rats housed in this environment showed increased exploratory behaviour and were apparently less fearful, based on their willingness to leave the home-cage. It would seem appropriate to provide enclosed shelters within the cages of laboratory rats as a way of improving their environment.
Keywords: animal welfare, enrichment, housing, rats, shelters
POSTGRADUATE TEACHING IN FARM ANIMAL WELFARE AND ETHICS
V Lund
Department of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, PO Box 234, S-532 23 Skara, Sweden
Final acceptance: 10 June 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 105-121
A survey was performed in the Spring of 1995 to map postgraduate education world-wide in animal welfare and ethics. Twenty-one universities in ten countries on three continents were identified, that either offered, or had definite plans to start, postgraduate courses relating to animal welfare and/or ethics. Of these universities nine were European, one Australian, one New Zealand, one Canadian and nine were American. In Australia, Canada and the United States courses are given during a semester or quarter of a semester, while in Europe short but concentrated courses or seminars are more common, with several of them aimed at practising veterinarians rather than at postgraduate students. Interest in the subject of animal welfare and ethics seems to be increasing. Many of the existing courses were started during recent years, and two of the most comprehensive programmes offered were started in 1995. Also, four chairs in animal welfare were recently established or were advertised in Europe at the time of this survey. One chair had been established in 1994, in New Zealand, one was to be advertised in the United States and one in Canada. Another trend is towards the establishment of 'centres' for the study of animal welfare issues. Associated with these new chairs and centres, educational programmes will probably be started. Few of the present courses focus mainly on farm animal issues, instead they cover a large spectrum of the human-animal relationship. Ethics is a minor part of the courses as compared to the science and animal welfare components.
Keywords: animal welfare, ethics, farm animals, postgraduate education
WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF THE NIGHT SHOOTING OF WILD MPALA (AEPYCEROS MELAMPUS)
A R Lewis¹, A M Pinchin²* and S C Kestin²
1 MAFF, Government Buildings, Alphington Road, Exeter, Devon EX2 8NQ, UK
2 Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 15 February 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 123-131
The most common method of culling impala (Aepyceros melampus) and many other antelope species in Africa was evaluated from a welfare point of view. The culling of 856 impala from 401 herds was observed and recorded in the Mkuzi Game Reserve, South Africa. Ninety-three per cent of animals were killed instantaneously by the first shot. Results indicated that herd size and composition, distance of herd from hunting vehicle and shot number all have a bearing on the number of animals wounded and missed. It is concluded that the culling of free-ranging impala by night-hunting in the manner described is a satisfactory method on welfare grounds, although a number of recommendations are made which might render the culling process more humane. It is argued that economic and welfare considerations are not necessarily in conflict, and long-term efficiency is likely to be enhanced by addressing both simultaneously.
Keywords: animal welfare, culling, impala, wildlife
THE EFFECT OF A SHORT-TERM BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH PROTOCOL ON STEREOTYPED ROCKING IN YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
K A Pazol and M A Bloomsmith*
Zoo Atlanta, 800 Cherokee Avenue, SE, Atlanta, GA 30315, USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 2 April 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 6: 133-138
Chimpanzees are sometimes housed in conditions of restricted social contact during use in biomedical research, a practice that may adversely affect their behaviour. This study measured the impact of such conditions on levels of stereotyped body rocking in six young, nursery-reared chimpanzees. Subject age at the beginning of the biomedical research protocol ranged from 1.1 to 3.8 years. Over a six-month period the subjects were moved to a different facility. During this time they were used in a biomedical research study which involved some periods of single housing. They were then returned to their original facility. The percentage of time subjects devoted to stereotyped rocking was measured for 36 weeks before and 36 weeks after participation in the biomedical protocol. Data on body rocking were also analysed for a post-test control group of animals (n = 9) who had a similar history of hand-rearing, but who did not leave the facility to participate in a biomedical research study. The behavioural analyses included 263 hours of focal animal observational data and revealed that the experimental subjects devoted equivalent amounts of time to rocking before and after participation in the biomedical research protocol. The experimental subjects and the control subjects showed similar levels of rocking. These findings indicate that participation in this particular short-term biomedical research protocol did not affect the expression of stereotyped rocking in chimpanzees.
Keywords: abnormal behaviour, animal welfare, behavioural management, body rocking, chimpanzee, psychological well-being
THE BEHAVIOUR OF PIGS IN LAIRAGE IN RELATION TO THEIR POST-WEANING MANAGEMENT: RESULTS OF A POSTAL SURVEY
E J Hunter*, H L Riches, H J Guise and R H C Penny
Cambac JMA Research, Lower Cadleys, South Stoke, Reading, Berkshire, RG8 0LX, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 30 September 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 139-144
Lairage staff at 11 abattoirs were asked to rate which producers regularly provided pigs which were 'easy' (EH) or 'difficult' (DH) to handle, on a scale of one (very DH) to five (very EH). A postal questionnaire, dealing with various aspects of post-weaning farm management, was then given to the four or five producers sending the most EH and the four or five producers sending the most DH pigs to each abattoir. Of 105 questionnaires sent, information on 26 EH and 27 DH systems was returned. The median number of replies per abattoir was two for both EH and DH systems. In most systems (77%) pigs experienced three or four housing stages from weaning to slaughter. In each of the first five housing stages, more EH pigs had access to daylight (mean of 86% ± 11.5 (SD)) than DH pigs (mean of 64% ± 10.1 (SD), P<0.05, two-sample t test). More EH systems provided straw in the first three housing stages, although over all stages the difference was not significant. During housing stage two, the difference in provision of straw between the systems was most marked, with 58 per cent of EH and 27 per cent of DH systems providing straw. Distance walked between housing stages three to four and four to five was significantly greater for EH compared to DH systems (EH mean of 64m ± 24.1 (SD), versus DH mean of 22m ± 14.0 (SD), and EH mean of 73m ± 17.2 (SD), versus DH mean of 23m ± 8.5 (SD), P
Keywords: animal handling, animal welfare, pig, pre-slaughter stress
EFFECT OF WOOD-PILE FEEDERS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF CAPTIVE BUSH DOGS (SPEOTHOS VENATICUS)
R Ings¹, N K Waran¹ and R J Young²*
1 Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, UK
2 Animal Department, Edinburgh Zoo, Murrayfield, Edinburgh, EH12 6TS, UK
* Contact for all correspondence and request for reprints
Final acceptance: 6 September 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 145-152
The influence of an environmental enrichment programme on the searching behaviour of separate groups of male and female bush dogs at Edinburgh Zoo was evaluated. The enrichment programme involved hiding food in specially constructed wood-piles and other appropriate places in the bush dogs' enclosures. Behavioural data were recorded morning and afternoon for 20 consecutive experimental days and were compared to pre- and post- enrichment programme data, representing basal conditions. Data were collected over a 10-day period for both pre and post enrichment phases. Activities were recorded under seven behavioural categories. There was no significant difference between sexes in the proportion of time spent performing searching behaviour so data were pooled. The enrichment programme appeared to cause an increase (P<0.01) in searching behaviour from initial basal conditions of 2.7 per cent to 6.1 per cent of total recorded data points. There was a subsequent decrease in searching behaviour (P<0.01) to 2.5 per cent when basal conditions were reinstated. All dogs showed increases in searching behaviour when enrichment and basal data were compared. The effectiveness of the enrichment programme in terms of increasing the proportion of time spent in searching behaviour showed a significant decline (P<0.005) over time, probably relating to the dogs increasing proficiency at finding food. It is suggested that the enhanced levels of searching behaviour represent an improvement in welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, bush dog, environmental enrichment, exploration, foraging
BEHAVIOUR AND THERMOGENESIS OF RACING PIGEONS HOUSED UNDER TRANSPORT CONDITIONS
J Gorssen and P Koene*
Department of Animal Husbandry, Wageningen Institute of Animal Science, PO Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 27 June 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 153-168
During homing contests, racing pigeons (Columba livia) are transported to their release site under crowded conditions. Behaviour and thermogenesis under these conditions were studied in two experiments. In the first experiment, temperature (260C or 360C) and water availability (access or deprived) had no significant effect on either behaviour or heat production of old male pigeons. However, the frequency of threatening behaviour and the proportion of activity-related heat production in total heat production increased during the 23-hour experimental period, whereas no decrease in aggressive behaviour was found. In the second experiment the effect of testing age (young or old) and sex (male or female) were considered in relation to behaviour and thermogenesis. Young pigeons were more immobile than old pigeons, but heat production was lower in old pigeons. Male groups had a higher activity-related heat production and had more head injuries resulting from pecking than females. Again, no decrease in aggressive behaviour or changes in behaviour patterns over time were found. Body-weight at the start of the experiment was predictive of subsequent behaviour in the crate. A higher body-weight was related to more threatening behaviour, less displacement and less head injuries. The consistent level of aggressive behaviour over time, causing predictable head injuries, indicates that a 'ceiling effect' in adaptation is reached under crowded transport conditions. To improve pigeon welfare, serious considerations must be given to transporting racing pigeons under less crowded conditions.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, behaviour, pigeon, transport
A SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTION OF ANIMAL WELFARE THAT REFLECTS ETHICAL CONCERNS
D Fraser¹*, D M Weary¹, E A Pajor² and B N Milligan²
Centre for Food and Animal Research, Building 94, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa K1A 0C6, Canada
1 Current address: Department of Animal Science and Centre for Applied Ethics, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada
2 Current address: Department of Biology, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Dr Penfield, Montreal H3A 1B1, Canada
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 3 February 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 187-205
Scientific research on 'animal welfare' began because of ethical concerns over the quality of life of animals, and the public looks to animal welfare research for guidance regarding these concerns. The conception of animal welfare used by scientists must relate closely to these ethical concerns if the orientation of the research and the interpretation of the findings is to address them successfully.
At least three overlapping ethical concerns are commonly expressed regarding the quality of life of animals: (1) that animals should lead natural lives through the development and use of their natural adaptations and capabilities, (2) that animals should feel well by being free from prolonged and intense fear, pain, and other negative states, and by experiencing normal pleasures, and (3) that animals should function well, in the sense of satisfactory health, growth and normal functioning of physiological and behavioural systems. Various scientists have proposed restricted conceptions of animal welfare that relate to only one or other of these three concerns. Some such conceptions are based on value positions about what is truly important for the quality of life of animals or about the nature of human responsibility for animals in their care. Others are operational claims: (1) that animal welfare research must focus on the functioning of animals because subjective experiences fall outside the realm of scientific enquiry, or (2) that studying the functioning of animals is sufficient because subjective experiences and functioning are closely correlated. We argue that none of these positions provides fully satisfactory guidance for animal welfare research.
We suggest instead that ethical concerns about the quality of life of animals can be better captured by recognizing three classes of problems that may arise when the adaptations possessed by an animal do not fully correspond to the challenges posed by its current environment. (1) If animals possess adaptations that no longer serve a significant function in the new environment, then unpleasant subjective experiences may arise, yet these may not be accompanied by significant disruption to biological functioning. Thus, a bucket-fed calf may experience a strong, frustrated desire to suck, even though it obtains adequate milk. (2) If the environment poses challenges for which the animal has no corresponding adaptation, then functional problems may arise, yet these may not be accompanied by significant effects on subjective feelings. Thus, a pig breathing polluted air may develop lung damage without appearing to notice or mind the problem. (3) Where animals have adaptations corresponding to the kinds of environmental challenges they face, problems may still arise if the adaptations prove inadequate. For example, an animal's thermoregulatory adaptations may be insufficient in a very cold environment such that the animal both feels poorly and functions poorly. We propose that all three types of problems are causes of ethical concern over the quality of life of animals and that they together define the subject matter of animal welfare science.
Keywords: animal welfare, ethics, health, scientific research, subjective experiences, stress, values
CONTROL AND COMPLEXITY IN NOVEL OBJECT ENRICHMENT
T D Sambrook¹* and H M Buchanan-Smith²
1 Department of Anthropology, University of Durham, 43 Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HN, UK
2 Scottish Primate Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 6 January 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 207-216
We discuss the properties of controllability and complexity in novel object enrichment, their definition and present a critique of previous work related to them. We address the relationship between control and complexity, the evolutionary basis of their attractiveness and suggest that the acquisition of control may be a more enriching process than its execution. We propose that, although little work has been directed at separating their relative contributions to enrichment, controllability appears more important than complexity. We discuss the ways in which objects can be responsive both in terms of the predictability of the response and the 'grade' of actor-object interaction.
Keywords: animal welfare, control, complexity, enrichment, novel object, responsive
BEHAVIOURAL OBSERVATIONS OF PERI-PARTURIENTSOWS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE FARROWING ACCOMMODATION: A REVIEW
D S Arey
Animal and Feed Technology Department, SAC, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB21 9YA, UK
Final acceptance: 26 February 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 217-229
A number of alternative farrowing systems have recently been developed, some of which have been more successful at improving welfare and productivity than others. It is argued that for a system to be successful it should meet with the behavioural requirements of the sow at this time. A number of studies have been carried out to observe the natural behaviour patterns of the peri-parturient sow in a wide range of environmental conditions. These studies have shown that during each phase of peri-parturient behaviour there are a number of key environmental features and conditions which are important to the sow. These include the social environment, shelter, nesting material and offspring interaction. This information can be useful in the design of farrowing systems. A review of the literature indicated that the more these conditions are met, the more readily the sow can adapt to the system, leading to improvements in maternal behaviour and piglet production.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, farrowing sow, housing, preference
THE HUMANE CONTROL OF CAPTIVE MARMOSET AND TAMARIN POPULATIONS
A W Sainsbury
Veterinary Science Group, The Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
Final acceptance: 13 December 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 231-242
In zoo and laboratory colonies of marmosets and tamarins (Callitrichidae) there has been an increasing need to adopt breeding control methods. In zoos, this need has been driven by a growth in populations. In laboratories, increased interest in control options has followed from the requirement to improve welfare by housing potential breeding animals together. Progestagen-containing contraceptive implants or depot-injections, prostaglandin injection regimes, vasectomy and various group-management methods have been used to control reproduction in marmoset and tamarin colonies. There is a need for advances in control techniques suitable for use in zoos. In the meantime, a policy of selective euthanasia or the use of vasectomy are recommended as control methods. In laboratories, although improved control methods are required, a number of techniques have been found to be satisfactory. When there are surplus marmosets and tamarins, the alternatives for their utilization include movement to other colonies, use for studies within zoos or in laboratories, sale to private keepers or euthanasia. Selling these animals privately is not recommended, except in exceptional circumstances. The preferred control option will differ in each circumstance and guidance is given in this paper.
Keywords: animal welfare, Callitrichidae, contraception, control of reproduction, management, marmoset, primate, tamarin
STRESS AND ADAPTATION OF CATS (FELIS SILVESTRIS CATUS) HOUSED SINGLY, IN PAIRS AND IN GROUPS IN BOARDING CATTERIES
M R Kessler¹* and D C Turner²
1 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Institute for Animal Science, Physiology & Animal Husbandry, ETH Zentrum, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
2 Institute for applied Ethology and Animal Psychology, IEAP, CH-8816 Hirzel, Switzerland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 11 December 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 243-254
For cats, appropriate housing conditions and a quick adjustment to new surroundings should be promoted during temporary stays in animal shelters and boarding catteries. In this study the development of stress in 140 boarding cats during a two-week stay under single-, pair- and group-housing conditions in a boarding cattery was investigated and compared with the stress levels of 45 control cats which had been at the animal shelter for several weeks. Signs of stress were recorded by a non-invasive Cat-Stress-Score.
Overall, the levels of stress in boarding cats declined during the two weeks of boarding, with a pronounced decline in the first days, but did not reach the stress levels of the control group by the end of the second week of housing. In the second week, the average stress level of about one third of all boarding cats was rated higher than 'weakly tense' with 4 per cent of cats rated even higher than 'very tense'. Neither housing style (single, paired or grouped) nor age had an influence on stress levels.
It was concluded that about two thirds of the boarding cats adjusted well to the boarding cattery during a two-week stay, while for the other third, temporary boarding was more stressful. For 4 per cent of the animals the two-week stay in a boarding cattery was classified as inappropriate because no reduction of their high stress levels occurred.
Keywords: animal husbandry, animal shelter, animal welfare, boarding cattery, cat, stress
A COMPARISON OF WEANING TECHNIQUES IN FARMED WAPITI (CERVUS ELAPHUS)
J C Haigh, J M Stookey*, P Bowman and C Waltz
Department of Herd Medicine & Theriogenology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, 52 Campus Drive, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon SK S7N 5B4, Canada
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 13 December 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 255-264
Twenty-one wapiti calves, born between 24 May and 4 July were weaned on 5 September. They were weighed, divided into two groups (10 and 11 calves) and either moved to a familiar paddock, adjacent to their dams and allowed fence-line contact (contact wean - CW), or moved to a familiar paddock which was visually obscured, and separated from their dams by approximately 50m (remote wean - RW). For the next two days after weaning the calves were observed from dawn until dusk. All observations were done using a 10-minute instantaneous scan sampling technique. Activities recorded included the number of calves standing, walking, lying, fence-line pacing, running, grazing, and feeding at a trough. On day 4 the observation time was reduced to 9 hours and 20 minutes. Observations were continued for a further six days during 2-hour periods after dawn and before dark. The calves were held in these separate paddocks for 10 days and during that time were weighed. After that they were held together in the remote wean paddock and weighed again at 31 and 63 days. There were no significant differences in the amount of time spent grazing between the two groups and there were no differences in weight gains between the groups throughout the trial. The CW calves vocalized less and spent less time standing, walking, fence-line pacing and running compared to RW calves. The CW calves were also observed spending more time lying and feeding at the trough. Overall, the CW calves displayed fewer behaviours indicative of the distress following weaning.
Keywords: animal welfare, Cervus elaphus, deer farming, wapiti, weaning
EFFECTIVE FEEDING ENRICHMENT FOR NON-HUMAN PRIMATES: A BRIEF REVIEW
V Reinhardt* and A Roberts
Animal Welfare Institute, PO Box 3650, Washington, DC 20007, USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: 4605 Crescent Road, Madison WI 53711, USA
Final acceptance: 18 December 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 265-272
There is a growing awareness that non-human primates kept in zoos and laboratories deserve more species-appropriate stimulation because of their biological adaptation to a challenging environment.
Numerous attempts have been made to effectively emulate the gathering and processing aspects of natural feeding. Whole natural food-items, woodchips mixed with seeds, the puzzle ceiling and the puzzle feeder stocked with ordinary biscuits, cost little or nothing but induce sustained food gathering and/or food processing. Turf and fleece substrates sprinkled with particles of flavoured food, foraging trays, probe feeders and puzzles baited with food treats also promote more foraging behaviour, but they are relatively expensive and require added labour time to load and clean them.
Keywords: animal welfare, behavioural health, enrichment, feeding, foraging, non-human primates
THE EARLY ONTOGENY OF BAR-GNAWING IN LABORATORY GERBILS
C Wiedenmayer
Department of Ethology, Zoological Institute, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: Developmental Psychobiology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 722 W 168th Street Box 40, New York, NY 10032, USA
Final acceptance: 8 January 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 273-277
The early development of bar-gnawing was studied in young gerbils kept in standard laboratory cages. Bar-gnawing was performed on the bars of the cage lid and developed shortly after eye-opening at an age of 18 days. It increased in bout length and duration with age and there was considerable variability in behaviour between individuals. It is discussed as to whether bar-gnawing is a stereotypy and in which behavioural context it develops.
Keywords: animal welfare, bar-gnawing, development, gerbil, housing
EFFECTS OF ENRICHMENT AND FLOOR TYPE ON BEHAVIOUR OF CUBICLE LOOSE-HOUSED DRY SOWS
J Durrell¹, I A Sneddon¹* and V E Beattie²
1 School of Psychology, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland
2 Agricultural Research Institute of Northern Ireland, Hillsborough, Co Down BT26 6DR, Northern Ireland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 11 February 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 297-308
The effects of enrichment and floor type on the behaviour and welfare of cubicle loose-housed dry sows were investigated in a 2x2 factorial design with four replicates. Sixty-four dry sows were housed in groups of four in pens containing a communal exercise area and four feeding stalls. Pens were either enriched (using spent mushroom compost on suspended wood and wire flat racks) or barren (containing either a solid or part-slatted floor). Enrichment reduced aggressive behaviour, injuries, nosing the ground and lying with eyes open and led to an increase in lying with eyes closed. Floor type had no overall significant effect on sow behaviour. Presentation of spent mushroom compost on suspended racks was found to be a cheap and practical form of enrichment. Incorporation of this system into the design of cubicle loose housing could reduce many of the problems associated with this type of housing and improve the welfare of the sows.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, environmental enrichment, pigs
THE EDUCATIVE ROLE OF AN ANIMAL CARE COMMITTEE IN CANADA: A CASE STUDY
A D Bowd
Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E1, Canada
Final acceptance: 30 September 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 309-315
Animal Care Committees (ACCs) in Canada operate within guidelines established by the Canadian Council on Animal Care, an autonomous advisory and supervisory body sponsored by the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. ACCs are established to ensure appropriate, humane use of animals in research and teaching, including the adoption of valid alternatives. Their role includes an educative responsibility: to ensure that both ACC members and scientists using animals are acquainted with the ethical issues surrounding animal use and principles relating to refinement of techniques, reduction of numbers used and replacement where possible.
Strategies employed by one university ACC consistent with these aims are described and evaluated. Qualitative and quantitative data are presented derived from participant observation by the author as an ACC member, committee protocols, minutes and other records and a survey of animal users' perceptions of the role and value of the ACC. Results indicated a relatively low level of familiarity with ethical principles relating to the humane treatment of animals, although regulations governing housing and care were well known.
Keywords: animal welfare, ethics, humane education, regulation
RELEASED, REHABILITATED HEDGEHOGS: A FOLLOW-UP STUDY IN JERSEY
P A Morris
School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
Final acceptance: 26 February 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 317-327
Thirteen overwintered juvenile hedgehogs (six male, seven female) were released in an area of farm land and gardens on Jersey, Channel Islands. Six (three of each sex) were originally from the same area, the rest came from other parts of the island. They were radio-tracked and monitored regularly for 6 weeks to investigate survival and especially whether 'site-native' animals and those from elsewhere differed in respect of their propensity to disperse widely following release. All animals survived at least 4 weeks and 10 were known to be alive after 6 weeks. The fate of the others is unknown, but there is no reason to believe that any of them suffered an early death.
Male hedgehogs used new nests more frequently than females. All remained within 400m of the release point for at least a month, some were still within 200m 6 weeks post-release. Five hedgehogs dispersed, travelling at least 400m from the release point. Four of these were males, including one recaptured 5.2km away. Dispersal seemed to be more related to sex than origin. All animals lost weight initially, but most stabilized after 2&endash;3 weeks; proportionately more weight was lost by larger animals. None was seen to use supplementary food put out for them, despite weight losses, and no aggressive interactions with wild conspecifics were noted. Despite all the animals being naïve juveniles, with little or no previous experience of life in the wild, none were killed by road traffic. Positive conclusions from previous studies concerning the success and welfare implications of releasing hedgehogs after care in captivity are confirmed.
Keywords: animal welfare, hedgehog, reintroduction
HOUSING AND WELFARE IN LABORATORY RATS: WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF ISOLATION AND SOCIAL CONTACT AMONG CAGED MALES
J L Hurst¹*, C J Barnard¹, C M Nevison¹ and C D West²
1 Behaviour and Ecology Research Group, Department of Life Science, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
2 Central Toxicology Laboratory, Zeneca PLC, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 4TJ, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 13 December 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 329-347
Male laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus; Wistar, Alderley Park) were housed as singletons or groups of three in units of two joined, but divided cages. Units were divided by different types of barrier that allowed different degrees of social contact across the barrier. Singletons were established either with another singleton as a neighbour on the other side of the barrier, or with a group of three as neighbours. Relative to group-housed animals, singly-housed rats showed reduced activity and a greater incidence of self-directed behaviours and behaviours apparently related to escape or seeking social information. Pathophysiological evidence was consistent with Baenninger's (1967) suggestion that tail manipulation in singletons is a surrogate social response, but was also consistent with an overall increase in self-directed activity, reflecting elasticity in time budgeting. Variation in the degree of increase in self-directed activity among singletons and the negative correlation between self-directed activity and organ pathology may have reflected differences in the ability of individuals to avoid an activity limbo. While reduced corticosterone concentration and organ pathology compared with grouped rats implied that separation may remove social stress, responses to contact with neighbours, and correlations between behaviours and organ pathology suggested that rats may actively seek social interaction. Broad differences in stress responses between single and grouped housing conditions may therefore be an inadequate yardstick to the animals' welfare. However, exposure to neighbours reduced the aggressiveness of singly-housed males when they were eventually introduced into an unfamiliar group, suggesting that a degree of exposure to neighbours (separation, but not isolation) may have some welfare benefits for laboratory-housed rats, depending on procedures.
Keywords: animal welfare, isolation, pathophysiology, rat, social stress, time budget
EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF ADULT OSTRICHES (STRUTHIO CAMELUS) IN BRITAIN
D C Deeming
School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
Address for correspondence: 2 Milldun Way, High Wycombe, Bucks HP12 3JA
Final acceptance: 13 January 1997
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 349-356
Welfare is being promoted as a reason why ostriches should not be kept on farms in Europe. It is reasoned that the climate, particularly during winter, is unsuitable for these birds despite there being little scientific evidence to support this claim. This study recorded the frequency of behaviours of male and female adult ostriches kept on a farm in Britain during the spring of 1996. 'Rainy', 'dull and dry', 'bright and dry', and 'sunny' weather categories were used to assess the influence of climate on behaviour. Six main behaviours (sitting, standing, pacing, walking, foraging and feeding) were observed together with a variety of low frequency 'other' behaviours which were combined for analysis. Gender had no significant effect on any of the behaviour frequencies. During 'rainy' periods both males and females showed sitting behaviour five times more than during 'dull' and 'bright' weather and two and a half times more than during 'sunny' weather. Increased sitting behaviour during rainy periods was due to a significant reduction in pacing and 'other' behaviours with no significant effect on feeding and foraging behaviours. Sitting during sunny weather also occurred more often than during dull and bright weather but not at the expense of any other particular behaviour. Adult ostriches in Britain alter their behaviour in response to prevailing weather conditions, particularly rain.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, farming, ostrich, weather
EFFECTS OF FORAGING ENRICHMENT ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF PARROTS
L E Coulton¹, N K Waran¹ and R J Young²*
1 Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
2 Animal Department, Edinburgh Zoo, Murrayfield, Edinburgh EH12 6TS, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 23 December 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1997, 6: 357-363
The purpose of this study was to enrich parrot enclosures by creating foraging opportunities appropriate for the species and to investigate the possible preference for a variable versus a constant food supply. The foraging device comprised of a length of wood (2x0.08x0.08m) with 50 holes (0.02m diameter x 0.02m depth) drilled into one face. Food was placed in the holes of the foraging device in one of two distributions: 'constant', one food item in every hole (total = 50 food items) or 'variable', 5 food items in 10 of the holes (total = 50 food items). The holes were then covered with starch paper. During the enrichment period the parrots spent significantly more time allopreening than in the baseline or post-enrichment periods. The results also provide some evidence of contrafreeloading in parrots, but no preference for a variable over a constant food source. The study shows that providing extra foraging opportunities for parrots is a useful form of enrichment.
Keywords: animal welfare, contrafreeloading, environmental enrichment, foraging, parrots
ILLUMINATING ISSUES OF COMPANION ANIMAL WELFARE THROUGH RESEARCH INTO HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS
A L Podberscek
Animal Welfare and Human-Animal Interactions Group, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
Final acceptance: 20 February 1997
