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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 5 Abstracts
PEOPLE'S WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR FARM ANIMAL WELFARE
R M Bennett
Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, The University of Reading, Reading RG6 2AR, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 3-11
There has been increasing policy debate about farm animal welfare over the last 5-10 years in a number of countries, particularly concerning the need for government intervention, for example by means of legislation. Assessment of farm animal welfare policy requires some evaluation of the associated relative costs and benefits involved. When considering the benefits, it is desirable not only to collate scientific evidence about the effects of policy on the welfare of animals but, also on the extent to which citizens in society want such a policy and the benefits that they perceive to result from it. This paper describes an exploratory survey which tests the application of a technique, contingent valuation, to estimate, in money terms, the benefits that people perceive to be associated with specific measures to improve farm animal welfare through eliciting their willingness to pay for welfare legislation (a case-study relating to the banning of battery cages in egg production is used). The study shows that the methodology could provide very useful information to policy makers and others interested in public perceptions and concerns about animal welfare, and public support for animal welfare policies.
Keywords: animal welfare, contingent valuation, public perceptions, welfare legislation, willingness-to-pay
ON COMPARING THE BEHAVIOUR OF ZOO HOUSED ANIMALS WITH WILD CONSPECIFICS AS A WELFARE INDICATOR
J S Veasey, N K Waran and R J Young*
Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JG
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: Animals Department, Edinburgh Zoo, Murrayfield, Edinburgh EH12 6TS
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 13-24
It is commonly assumed that animals suffer if they cannot perform behaviours seen in wild conspecifics. Although comparisons with the behaviour of wild conspecifics are a popular method of assessing the welfare of captive animals, their validity has not been fully assessed. Homeostatic models of motivation suggest that many behaviours are stimulus driven rather than internally generated. Thus, it is possible that the non-performance of some wild-type behaviours does not necessarily compromise animal welfare, unless welfare is defined as being compromised by such non-performance. The flexibility of wild animal behaviour and the fact that animals free to perform the complete range of wild behaviours can suffer, must also put into the question the validity of such comparisons. Technical criticisms also arise when one considers the difficulty of constructing accurate and unbiased time budgets for wild animals. It is possible that the expressions of wild-type behaviours correlate with enhanced welfare, rather than cause enhanced welfare. Thus, if the consequences of behaviour are more important than the expression of behaviour itself, environmental enrichment does not necessarily need to rely upon the performance of wild-type behaviours for the improvement of animal welfare. Therefore, although behavioural comparisons with wild animals can be considered as potentially useful indicators of behavioural differences, they cannot always be relied upon to give an objective assessment of animal welfare. To make an assessment of welfare, behavioural comparisons with wild animals should be used in conjunction with other techniques to demonstrate that the consequences of non-performance of wild behaviours results in impoverished welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, behavioural needs, captive, motivation, wild
REARING PIGS IN SPECIES-SPECIFIC FAMILY GROUPS
B Wechsler
Abt. Sozial- und Nutztierethologie, Zoologisches Institut, Universität Bern, Ethologische Station Hasli, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 25-35
In the Family Pen System piglets and fatteners grow up in species-specific family groups that correspond to the normal social organization of domestic pigs. The feasibility of a technologically improved version of this alternative housing system, originally designed by Alex Stolba, was tested on a commercial farm for two and a half years. Eighty-one litters were born in three family groups within this period. Average cycle length was 170 ± 24 (SD) days, resulting in 2.15 litters per sow per year. All piglets were suckled for at least seven weeks. In 53.8 per cent of the cycles lactational oestrus occurred before the piglets were seven-weeks-old. The litters of sows which did not show lactational oestrus were artificially weaned and returned to the family group as soon as the sow had been served. At the beginning there were problems with piglet health and crushing, but in the last 21 months of the study there was a stable reproductive performance of 19.5 piglets (28-days-old) reared per sow per year (n = 53 litters). Sows that had been raised themselves in the Family Pen System reared 21.4 piglets per year (n = 25 litters). In conclusion, the technologically improved version of the Family Pen System was found to be practicable on a commercial farm.
Keywords: animal welfare, lactational oestrus, pen design, pig housing
SPACE UTILIZATION BY CAPTIVE-BORN BABOONS (Papio sp.) BEFORE AND AFTER PROVISION OF STRUCTURAL ENRICHMENT
A L Kessel and L Brent
Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, Department of Laboratory Animal Medicine, PO Box 28147, San Antonio, Texas 78228 USA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 37-44
Eight baboon groups (Papio sp.) were observed for over one hundred scan samples both before and after the provision of structural enrichment. Additions to their home-cage included a galvanized ladder suspended horizontally by chains and a plastic drum hung from the ladder. Observations were conducted for three weeks before and three weeks after the structures were added to determine changes in space use. The baboons' age-sex class and location were recorded at 10 minute intervals over a 60 minute time period. Groups were categorized as small, medium or large for analysis. The baboons spent most of their time on the floor and the bench and this pattern did not change with the addition of the new structures. The female baboons used the new structures an average of 16.5 per cent of the observation time, the males used them 13.6 per cent of the time, and the infants used them 10.1 per cent of the time. Of the new structures, males, females and infants all used the ladder the most. Females and infants used areas that were inaccessible to males and no group size differences were found.
Keywords: animal welfare, baboon, enrichment, group size, space utilization
STRESS HORMONE RESPONSES OF SHEEP TO FOOD AND WATER DEPRIVATION AT HIGH AND LOW AMBIENT TEMPERATURES
R F Parrott, D M Lloyd and J A Goode
MAFF Welfare and Behaviour Laboratory, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB2 4AT, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 45-56
The effects of food and/or water deprivation at different ambient temperatures (7 or 35ƒC) on stress hormone release in sheep (n = 8), were studied to provide background data for research into the effects of road transport. Blood samples were taken from catheterized animals at the start and, at 6h intervals, during 48h tests in an environmental chamber. Cortisol release was unaffected by temperature or deprivation state but was stimulated by introduction to the chamber. Prolactin secretion showed a similar tendency and levels of this hormone were generally higher in the first test, whichever chamber was used. Heat exposure also had a prolonged stimulatory effect on prolactin release, especially in the first test. Growth hormone concentrations were rather variable but tended to be greatest when the animals were deprived of food. Measurements of plasma osmolality indicated that sheep remained in water balance, even when water was withheld for 48h, unless they had access to food. The results suggest that under laboratory conditions, and over a wide thermal range, withholding food and water for 48h does not induce cortisol or prolactin release in sheep. However, exposure to novel situations seems to have a stimulatory effect.
Keywords: animal welfare, cortisol, dehydration, food deprivation, prolactin, sheep, temperature
MINKE WHALES TAKEN IN ANTARCTIC COMMERCIAL WHALING OPERATIONS, 1978/79 SEASON
P B Best
Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002 South Africa
Contact for correspondence: Dr Peter B Best, MRI Whale Unit, c/o South African Museum, PO Box 61, Cape Town, 8000 South Africa.
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 57-62
Observations on the external locations of harpoon wounds were made on 127 minke whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata taken during Japanese commercial whaling operations in the 1978/79 Antarctic season. The numbers of wounds per whale did not vary between catcher boats, the average being 1.2. Although the cranio-thoracic region seemed to be the target of choice (bearing 60.5% of all wounds examined), the proportion of wounds in this region varied significantly between catcher boats, ranging from 43.6 to 75.7 per cent. It is suggested that this variation arose because to hit the cranio-thoracic region, the first section of the whale to surface, requires considerable skill on the part of the gunner.
Keywords: animal welfare, Antarctic, harpoon wounds, minke whale, whaling
ASSESSMENT OF MOTIVATION IN THE LIZARD, CHALCIDES OCELLATUS
T M Skelton, N K Waran¹ and R J Young*
Animals Department, Edinburgh Zoo, Murrayfield, Edinburgh EH12 6TS
1. Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 63-69
The purpose of this study was to assess whether running an alleyway can be used to measure the motivation of lizards. Six, eyed skinks, Chalcides ocellatus, were trained to run an alleyway to reach sand in which to hide. Each skink was deprived of sand for 0, 1, 5 or 15 minutes on four occasions and the times to run the alleyway and the latencies to move were recorded. When the sand was 38cm from the start, the three deprivation periods resulted in decreased latencies and increased speed (P< 0.01), but there was no difference between the speeds or latencies for any of the deprivation periods. In a second experiment, the sand was moved to 94cm from the start. Latencies to move did decrease (P< 0.05) as in the first experiment, but speed did not increase. Within certain constraints, this methodology appears to be a good way of assessing motivation of reptiles.
Keywords: animal welfare, eyed skink, lizard, motivation, substrate deprivation
WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF THE GAS STUNNING OF PIGS 2. STRESS OF INDUCTION OF ANAESTHESIA
A B M Raj* and N G Gregory¹
Division of Food Animal Science, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford Bristol BS18 7DY
1. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 71-78
The severity of respiratory distress occurring prior to loss of posture during exposure to: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 or 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air; 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen in argon; 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with either 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen; or 40 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with either 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen, was subjectively determined in pigs from their behaviour. The results indicated that exposure to 2 per cent oxygen in argon (anoxia) induced minimal respiratory distress, 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with 2 per cent residual oxygen induced a moderate distress and exposure to all the concentrations of carbon dioxide in air induced severe respiratory distress in the pigs. From the animal welfare point of view, using 2 per cent oxygen in argon (anoxia) appears to be the optimum choice for gas stunning pigs. Secondly, a mixture of 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with 2 per cent residual oxygen is preferred to 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air.
Keywords: animal welfare, argon, aversion, carbon dioxide, inhalation, pigs, stunning
IS BROILER BREEDER WELFARE IMPROVED BY USING QUALITATIVE RATHER THAN QUANTITATIVE FOOD RESTRICTION TO LIMIT GROWTH RATE?
C J Savory*, P M Hocking, J S Mann and M H Maxwell
Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 1 August 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 105-127
Possible welfare benefits of qualitative rather than quantitative food restriction were investigated with growing female broiler breeder chickens (Ross 1). In Experiment 1, body-weight gains from 2 to 6 weeks of age were compared among different diet dilution, appetite suppression and low protein treatments, with free access to food at all times, to identify qualitative treatments causing weight gains similar to that recommended in the Ross 1 Parent Stock Management Manual. Based on these results, four diet dilution (400g kg-1 unmolassed sugar-beet pulp, 300 and 600g kg-1 oat hulls, 500g kg-1 softwood sawdust) and one appetite suppression (50g kg-1 calcium propionate) treatments were compared with two quantitative restriction (the recommended daily ration and twice that amount) and one ad libitum control treatments, from 2 to 10 weeks of age, in Experiment 2. As well as growth, food intake, excreta production and digestibility, measurements were also made of behaviour and blood indices of stress. Several conclusions were drawn. Different methods of qualitative food restriction can be used to control growth rate within desired limits. Problems with these methods include reduced uniformity in weight gain, increased excreta production and/or increased cost. Although they appear to suppress abnormal oral behaviours, they do not alter the increased general activity which is correlated with suppression of growth rate, and which may more accurately reflect associated hunger. Suppression of abnormal oral behaviours may only rarely correspond with reduction in blood indices of stress, and so cannot be taken to indicate improved welfare. Some of these methods can add to physiological stress. Finally, there was insufficient evidence of improved welfare, based on both behavioural and physiological criteria, to justify advocating the suitability of any of these methods for commercial use.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, chickens, hunger, qualitative and quantitative food restriction, stress
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF FEEDING ENHANCEMENTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF SINGLE-CAGED, YEARLING RHESUS MACAQUES
S J Schapiro*, S A Suarez, L M Porter and M A Bloomsmith
Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park, Bastrop, Texas 78602 USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final Acceptance: 31 August 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 129-138
Captive primates rarely have to spend as much time searching for, obtaining and processing food as do their wild counterparts. Enrichment techniques designed to encourage captive primates to spend more species-appropriate amounts of time in foraging behaviours have been successful. The present study measured the behavioural effects of four feeding enhancements: two devices (mats and puzzles) and two foods (produce and frozen juice), on four cohorts (n = 63) of single-caged, yearling rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Devices required considerable manipulation to retrieve rewards, whereas enrichment foods required additional processing. Analyses compared periods when one of the enhancements was available to interim periods when no enhancements were available. Planned comparisons revealed that subjects spent more time feeding, and less time inactive, self-grooming, exploring and behaving socially when feeding enrichment was available. Significantly more time was spent feeding when enrichment foods were provided, but more time was spent playing and using enrichment when devices were in the cage. More time was spent self-grooming and exploring with the acrylic puzzle than with the artificial turf mat. Subjects spent significantly more time feeding when produce was available than when frozen juice was available. Feeding enhancements resulted in more species-typical patterns of activity for single-caged, yearling rhesus. Since feeding devices were used in species-typical activities in addition to feeding, devices may be more valuable than foods. Feeding enrichment programmes which combine stimulating devices with foods that are novel and require processing can positively affect the behaviour of captive primates.
Keywords: animal welfare, feeding, feeding enrichment, Macaca mulatta, psychological well-being, single caging
ON COMPARING THE BEHAVIOUR OF ZOO HOUSED ANIMALS WITH WILD CONSPECIFICS AS A WELFARE INDICATOR, USING THE GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS) AS A MODEL
J S Veasey¹, N K Waran¹ and R J Young²*
1. Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JG
2. Animals Department, Edinburgh Zoo, Murrayfield, Edinburgh EH12 6TS
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final Acceptance: 14 August 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 139-153
To assess the validity of using wild behavioural data as a welfare indicator for zoo animals, the time budgets of 19 captive giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), from four zoos were compared with the time budgets of wild giraffe from Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Differences were shown to exist between the behaviour of wild and captive giraffe. However, only the duration of lying differed significantly across zoos. Correlations demonstrated that both enclosure size and feed restriction affected the locomotor activity of giraffe. An attempt to quantify observer influence upon the behaviour of wild giraffe was made. Different methods of observation were shown to significantly affect the time budget established. The extent to which wild giraffe behaviour can be used as a welfare indicator for captive conspecifics is discussed, as are the problems inherent in such a study. The difficulties in constructing an alternative welfare measure using prevalence to veterinary problems, are briefly considered. Methods by which captive giraffe welfare can be improved are discussed, particularly concerning the provision of browse to allow more natural feeding patterns to be established.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, captivity, giraffe, time budget, wild
BEHAVIOUR OF SILVER FOXES IN TRADITIONAL BREEDING BOXES AND IN BOXES WITH AN ENTRANCE TUNNEL
B O Braastad
Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, PO Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway
Final Acceptance: 15 September 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 155-166
The periparturient behaviour of silver-fox females inside traditional and modified breeding boxes was video-recorded. The behaviour was analysed from 24 hours before parturition to 72 hours after, and in three diurnal periods. Twenty litters had the traditional simple breeding box, whereas 14 litters had a box with a narrow entrance tunnel. Compared to females in traditional boxes, females in tunnel boxes spent more time sleeping inside the box both before and after parturition, cleaning newborn cubs and grooming cubs while lying down, but less time looking out of the box. Excavation performed on the floor prior to parturition was performed equally often in both box types. The differences between box types were particularly pronounced for primiparous vixens. During the three postparturient days most differences in behaviour between box types were only found during working hours (0800-1500h). At this time females in non-tunnel boxes spent considerably less time sleeping and more time in locomotion within the box, looking out of the box, walking into or out of the box, standing partly out of the box, or staying out of the box, than females in tunnel boxes. Cub mortality was lower in tunnel boxes than in non-tunnel boxes. The results indicate that females in tunnel boxes had a more relaxed behaviour and were able to nurture their offspring more effectively. They did not watch their surroundings as frequently as females in traditional breeding boxes. Giving silver foxes a breeding box with an entrance tunnel may improve the welfare of both female and offspring.
Keywords: animal welfare, housing, maternal behaviour, nest, reproduction, silver fox
EFFECT OF GROUP HOUSING AND ORAL CORTICOSTERONE ADMINISTRATION ON WEIGHT GAIN AND LOCOMOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN NEONATAL RATS
L A Young, G Pavlovska-Teglia, G Stodulski and J Hau*
Laboratory Animal Science and Welfare, Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final Acceptance: 21 November 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 167-176
To study the influence of maternal stress on neonatal locomotor development, rat pups of mothers housed singly and in groups were treated orally with corticosterone from 2 to 15 days of age. Control animals received almond oil vehicle only. The rat pups were subjected to swim-tests from 8 to 20 days of age to evaluate locomotor development. Swim-test performance demonstrated a retardation of locomotor development in pups treated with corticosterone (P<0.05). Retardation was most marked in the pups from group-housed mothers and between 13 and 15 days of age. Comparing pups not treated with hormones, the pups born to group-housed mothers showed significantly (P<0.05) better performance on swim-testing. The weight gain of pups from group-housed mothers was significantly (P<0.05) higher than that of pups from individually caged mothers. Corticosteroid treatment had no effect on weight gain.
Keywords: animal model, animal welfare, corticosterone administration, group housing, neonatal, rat, stress, swim-test, weight gain
CONTRASTS IN DIET AMONGST BARBARY MACAQUES ON GIBRALTAR: HUMAN INFLUENCES
H O'Leary
Flat 4, 33 Red Lion Square, London WC1R 4AB
Final Acceptance: 31 July 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 177-188
A four-month study was conducted on three groups of free-ranging, provisioned Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus, L) on Gibraltar in 1992. The groups exhibited marked contrasts in the levels of provisioned, tourist-derived and natural foods in their diet, which related to differences experienced in the level and nature of human visitation.
Feeding on natural plant items accounted for only 17-20 per cent of feeding records at all sites, whereas provisioned food was the dominant element (over 75% of records) at the least visited group. In contrast 51.7 per cent of items consumed at the site most used by tourists (Apes' Den) involved tourist-derived foods, with provisioned food contributing only 28 per cent of feeding records. The high caloric content of tourist-derived foods together with their dominance in the diet at Apes' Den is implicated in the well-documented weight-related problems affecting this group.
Current levels of uncontrolled tourist feeding present a health and welfare threat to the Barbary macaques of Gibraltar, particularly the Apes' Den group. Future management plans must recognize and seek to remedy the negative impacts of tourism.
Keywords: animal welfare, Barbary macaque, human-impact, provisioning, tourists
BEHAVIOURAL TIME-BUDGETS AND BEAK RELATED BEHAVIOUR IN FLOOR-HOUSED TURKEYS
B O Hughes* and P N Grigor¹
Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9PS, UK
1. Present address: Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB9 2QJ, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final Acceptance: 1 September 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 189-198
The behavioural time budget of 140 turkey poults housed on litter in groups of 10-11 in small pens was recorded by individual scan sampling from 1-day-old to 12-weeks-old. Over this time period some behaviour (sitting/sleeping) remained relatively constant, some (feeding) declined and remained low, some (standing/walking, drinking) declined and rose again, while some (environmental pecking, bird pecking, preening) rose and then declined. By 12 weeks the incidence of some behaviours appeared to have stabilized, though others were still changing. A substantial proportion of their activity could be categorized as beak-related behaviour. Feather pecking and cannibalism are major behavioural and welfare problems in intensively-housed turkeys; it is postulated that one reason for this may be because a major proportion of their beak-related behaviour is strongly directed towards plumage, either their own or that of other birds, rather than towards food or environmental stimuli. One possible solution may be to seek ways of increasing the proportion of time they spend feeding.
Keywords: animal welfare, cannibalism, pecking behaviour, time-budgeting, turkeys
ANIMAL WELFARE: EVOLUTION AND EROSION OF A MORAL CONCEPT
F R Stafleu1*, F J Grommers² and J Vorstenbosch¹
1. Centre for Bio-ethics and Health Law, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
2. Section for Veterinary Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 17 January 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 225-234
There are many definitions of animal welfare. These do not only differ in their meaning, but also in their function for making a broad concept accessible for scientific research. Lexical [dictionary] definitions establish what the common meaning is of the concept to be studied, and help to find some concrete phenomena which are related to the often vague and general descriptive terms. Explanatory definitions provide an elementary theoretical background for studying the phenomena. Operational definitions contain the parameters used in concrete measurements. In each step we reduce the concept to more measurable elements but lose other elements of the concept. In the case of animal welfare this results in an evolution of definitions which makes animal welfare more objectively assessable. But it also results in an erosion: development of a confusing diversity in parameters and a loss of the moral aspect of the concept of animal welfare. This erosion has a negative influence on political decision-making. It is important to recognize the possibilities and limitations of problem solving, based on 'animal welfare science'.
Keywords: animal welfare, definitions, ethics, policy
ETHICS OF INTERVENTIONS FOR THE WELFARE OF FREE-LIVING WILD ANIMALS
J K Kirkwood* and A W Sainsbury
Institute of Zoology, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 26 January 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 235-243
There is growing interest in and support for the development of disease prevention measures in free-living wildlife and for the rescue, treatment and rehabilitation of wild animals that are sick and injured. In some cases these endeavours may be of importance to the conservation of populations but frequently they are undertaken for welfare rather than conservation reasons. There are circumstances in which wildlife welfare can be improved by therapeutic intervention but the difficulties, and their potentially harmful consequences, should not be underestimated. Interventions for the welfare of free-living wild animals whose fate we control or influence and which are therefore, to some extent, under our stewardship, are consistent with the tradition of humanity for and stewardship of domesticated or captive animals. However, it is suggested here that the decision to treat sick or injured free-living wild animals should not be based on welfare grounds alone.
Keywords: animal welfare, ethics, intervention, medicine, rehabilitation, wildlife
STEREOTYPIC BEHAVIOUR IN WILD CAUGHT AND LABORATORY BRED BANK VOLES (CLETHRIONYMUS GLAREOLUS)
J J Cooper* and C J Nicol
Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Avon, BS18 7DU, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Rd, Oxford OX1 3PS
Final acceptance: 12 November 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 245-257
Stereotypic behaviour is generally associated with animals maintained in restrictive environments, and has rarely been described in wild or free-ranging animals. The difference between captive and wild populations may be due to their genetic predisposition or to experience of environmental factors. To investigate genetic and environmental factors, we compared the behaviour of 12 wild caught voles and their 9 pups with that of 12 laboratory reared voles and 14 laboratory bred pups. All voles were observed twice. Adults were observed after 10 days housing in a cage, containing food, water, sawdust and hay, and again after 60 days. Pups were observed in the same cages 10 and 60 days after weaning. For each observation, the voles' behaviour was recorded both undisturbed in this cage, and following introduction to an unfamiliar cage. Locomotor stereotypies were observed in laboratory adults, but not in wild caught voles, which spent less time on all locomotor activities and more time under cover than laboratory voles. There was no difference in mortality or fecundity of laboratory and wild caught voles, so there appeared to be no selective advantage to stereotyping. There was no difference in the behaviour of wild and laboratory pups, so early environmental experience of the cage environment, rather than parental background, was an important factor in the development of locomotor stereotypies in this species. Pups that developed stereotypies by 60 days spent less time under cover and more time walking and climbing after 10 days than voles that did not develop stereotypic behaviour. Stereotypic behaviour may therefore have been derived from persistence of locomotor behaviour. Wild caught voles may have failed to develop locomotor stereotypies, either because they did not perform a locomotor response to captivity or because older voles are less prone to develop novel responses to external cues. It would, therefore, be dangerous to use the absence of stereotypic behaviour as a reliable indicator of welfare without taking into account the animal's prior experience.
Keywords: animal welfare, bank voles, experience, stereotypic behaviour
HANDLING, BRUISING AND DEHYDRATION OF CATTLE AT THE TIME OF SLAUGHTER
A M Jarvis, C D A Messer and M S Cockram*
Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Veterinary Field Station, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 20 November 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 259-270
The handling of cattle during unloading (n = 39) and movement to slaughter (n = 163) was observed at a commercial slaughterhouse. Most potentially traumatic events and handling events occurred while the cattle were in the race. During the initial 3 hours in the lairage pen, cattle from markets (n = 28) spent significantly more time drinking than those sent to slaughter direct from farms (n = 11; P<0.05). Most cattle had bruises (99%; n = 181), but there was no difference between the occurrence of bruising in cattle direct from farms and those from markets. Bruise score was not affected by the distance transported from farms 18-201km (11-125 miles). However, cattle from markets >64km (>40 miles) from the slaughterhouse had greater bruise scores than those from nearer markets 0.8-64km (0.5-40 miles) (P<0.01). No correlations were found between potentially traumatic events at the slaughterhouse and the occurrence of bruising. Plasma total protein concentration and plasma creatine kinase activity in blood collected at exsanguination (n = 170) was significantly greater in cattle from markets than in those from farms (P<0.05), but there was no difference in plasma osmolality and packed cell volume (PCV). Cattle from distant markets >129km (>80 miles) had higher PCV and plasma total protein concentration than those from markets within 129km (80 miles) (P<0.05). The overall results suggest that cattle from markets, particularly those transported for a distance greater than 64km (40 miles), would benefit from greater access to water at the market and from improved methods of handling and transport prior to arrival at the slaughterhouse.
Keywords: animal welfare, bruising, cattle, dehydration, handling, slaughterhouse
THE EFFECT OF A MOVING BAIT ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF CAPTIVE CHEETAHS (ACINONYX JUBATUS)
B G Williams¹, N K Waran², J Carruthers³ and R J Young¹*
1. Edinburgh Zoo, Murrayfield, Edinburgh, EH12 6TS, UK
2. ERM, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Kings Buildings, EH9 3JG, UK
3. SCAE, SAC-Edinburgh, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PH, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 14 August 1995
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 271-281
Members of the cat family are highly motivated to hunt, but in captivity are unable to do so for a variety of reasons. This inability to hunt may reduce their welfare. In this study we used a moving bait to stimulate and release hunting motivation in two captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Essentially our enrichment device consisted of a dead rabbit, hung from a pulley, just above the ground, moving down a 34 metre length of wire by the force of gravity. We observed the cheetahs for 140 minutes per day over three sequential food presentation periods: Baseline (10 consecutive days), Device (10 consecutive days) and Post-device (5 consecutive days). The moving bait significantly increased the frequency of sprinting (hunting) and time spent performing observations. It significantly decreased time spent in affiliation and feeding. These effects were also observed at times other than when the moving bait was presented. Thus, a moving bait allows captive cheetahs to perform 'natural-looking' hunting in captivity.
Keywords: animal welfare, cheetahs, environmental enrichment, exercise, hunting
PREFERENCES OF LABORATORY MICE FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILING SITES
C M Sherwin
Division of Animal Health and Husbandry, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DU, UK
Final acceptance: 15 March 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 283-288
When designing cages to maximize welfare, we should consider both the physical and psychological needs of the animals for which the cage is intended. Many laboratory species show non-random defecation patterns and therefore might possess a psychological need for soiling sites with preferred characteristics. This study examined whether caged laboratory mice preferred to defecate on a floor with or without sawdust, and whether mice preferentially defecated in clearly partitioned areas of the cage which prevented mixing of soiled and clean sawdust. The mice were recorded as active in each area of the cage at a frequency that would be expected from the floor-area available, ie general activity was randomly distributed, but, the mice were selective in the areas used for defecation. Significantly more faeces were deposited in areas containing sawdust than in areas without (P<0.0001). After corrections for differences in the size of floor-area, significantly fewer faeces were deposited in partitioned areas at the rear of the cage than in the front area of the cage which contained the feeder and drinkers (P<0.001). Overall, these results show that the mice defecated in localized areas and preferred to defecate in areas containing sawdust. These results support other evidence which indicates that conventional cage designs for mice do not provide a sufficiently complex or appropriate environment to allow selective soiling behaviour. Such cages might therefore be inadequate with respect to catering for the psychological needs and overall welfare of laboratory mice.
Keywords: animal welfare, defecation, laboratory mice, sawdust, soiling behaviour
THE EFFECT OF TRANSLOCATION ON A SOCIAL GROUP OF BADGERS (MELES MELES)
J A Brown* and C L Cheeseman
Central Science Laboratory, Tangley Place, Worplesdon, Guildford, Surrey, GU3 3LQ
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1UG, UK
Final acceptance: 27 March 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 289-309
A social group of six badgers (Meles meles) (four adults and two cubs) was translocated from urban Bexhill, East Sussex, in August 1993 to a 1216m2 electrified enclosure in a part of Suffolk largely unoccupied by badgers. Three adult badgers (SY2, SY5 and SY6) escaped from the release site prior to the removal of the perimeter fence on 10 December and established a sett near a village, 2.9km from the release site. In January 1994, the remaining adult (SY4) left the release site and moved 1.8km to the grounds of a youth detention centre. The cubs did not desert the site as readily as the adults.
Home-range sizes for two adult females, SY4 and SY6, remained relatively constant, while that of adult male SY2 increased from 50ha in February to nearly 400ha in April. The range of SY2 overlapped parts of the ranges of the two females, although SY4 and SY6's ranges never overlapped.
The percentage volume of scavenged food in the diet increased monthly between February and April which corresponded to increased garden activity over this period. Earthworms were the most important item in the diet. The establishment of both main setts near housing and the preference for foraging in gardens suggests that badgers released into novel environments may search for familiar habitats.
It is concluded that translocation can successfully establish badgers at new locations. However, translocation as a solution to problems caused by badgers must only be viewed as a last resort, not least due to the potential for disease spread.
Keywords: animal welfare, badger, diet, home-range size, release site, translocation
EFFECTS OF LIGHTING ON THE WELFARE OF DOMESTIC POULTRY: A REVIEW
C E Manser
Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
Final acceptance: 1 March 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 341-360
Four aspects of lighting which may influence the behaviour and physiology of housed poultry are light intensity, photoperiod, light source and wavelength. These factors are frequently manipulated in an attempt to improve productivity and to facilitate management practices. This review examines the effects of such manipulation upon the welfare of the birds. The majority of papers on lighting in poultry houses deal with their effects upon performance, rather than on factors associated with behaviour and health which may impinge upon welfare. Data about the preferences of birds for different lighting conditions are almost entirely lacking, but the practice of housing birds in relatively low light intensity is considered likely to lead to sensory deprivation in species where vision is important. Tentative recommendations are given pending the results of future research as to appropriate light intensity, photoperiod and light sources for domestic poultry.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, hens, lighting, physiology, turkeys
SPACE REQUIREMENT STIPULATIONS FOR CAGED NON-HUMAN PRIMATES IN THE UNITED STATES: A CRITICAL REVIEW
V Reinhardt*, C Liss and C Stevens
Animal Welfare Institute, PO Box 3650, Washington, DC 20007, USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: 4605 Crescent Road, Madison WI 53711, USA
Final acceptance: 12 January 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 361-372
Cage space requirements for non-human primates in the United States of America are less than those in European countries. Studies in support of the assumption that the US legal minimum cage size provides adequate space have limited value because they only tested cages without structural enhancement. It is not surprising that non-human primates cannot be animated to be more active or to behave in more species-typical manners by only providing them with extra barren space. Explicitly stipulating that all cages have to be equipped with properly installed, elevated structures appropriate to each species and age category would make the US standards more adequate. Such structures would no longer restrict the caged primate to an unnatural, permanent terrestrial lifestyle but would allow the animal to make use of the arboreal, 'safe' dimension to which she/he is biologically adapted. Minimal height requirements will have to be upgraded in the US to accommodate these ethological considerations.
Keywords: animal welfare, non-human primates, quality of cage space, regulations
SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITIES OF CAPTIVE PERFORMING BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS)
L Galhardo1*, M C Appleby¹, N K Waran¹ and M E dos Santos²
1. Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
2. Unidade de Investigação em Eco-Etologia, Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Rua Jardim do Tabaco, 44, 1000 Lisboa, Portugal
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: Travessa do Possolo, 17, 4† piso, 1350 Lisboa, Portugal
Final Acceptance: 24 May 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 373-389
Despite the number of dolphins that have been kept in dolphinaria, and the many behavioural studies that have been conducted on captive dolphins, few have focused on their welfare. Some behaviours have been described in detail, but insufficient attention has been paid to the diurnal variations in their occurrence.
Behavioural observations were conducted upon two groups (two and six individuals each) of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) over a period of six weeks. Behavioural descriptions were produced and the amount of time the animals spent engaged in different behaviours was sampled. General trends of both groups and differences in patterns of variation throughout the day were also analysed. The use of area by the dolphins and their degrees of association were recorded. Considerable individual variation and differences between the two groups were observed.
In comparing the behaviour of different dolphins and in considering their welfare it is necessary to take into account their marked degree of individuality. The observations have shown that behavioural data such as variability of behaviour patterns, spontaneous variations in the daily activities and frequency of playing and exploration may constitute good welfare indicators. It is argued that social diversity, appropriate physical characteristics of the pools, existence of play objects in the pools, easy access to visual contact with people, and frequent interactions with the trainers throughout the day at unscheduled times may be important ways of improving environmental stimulation.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, dolphins, environmental enrichment, individual differences
INTRODUCING DOGS INTO KENNELS: PREDICTION OF SOCIAL TENDENCIES TO FACILITATE INTEGRATION
S M Sonderegger¹ and D C Turner²*
1. Pet Ethology Group, Ethology Department, Institute of Zoology, University of Zurich-Irchel, Switzerland
2. Institute for applied Ethology and Animal Psychology, IET/IEAP, CH-8816 Hirzel, Switzerland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 14 May 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 391-404
Ethological observations of the introduction of new charges into a large mixed-sex group in a dog shelter, and the later behaviour of the dogs in the run, were used to investigate a method of early assessment of the dogs' reactions to the new situation. Subjects were divided qualitatively into four categories according to their interactional behaviour during the first two days ('dog-oriented', 'human-oriented', 'dog & human friendly', 'asocial'). This classification was compared to an independent division resulting from statistical analysis of the dogs' entry-sequences, and was found to be consistent for 80 per cent of dogs. One week after entry, both female and male dogs received distinctively fewer social interactions by conspecifics and tended to direct more interaction-initiating behaviour towards the keeper, thus demonstrating an integration process; females became more physically active and initiated significantly more interactions with other dogs; for males, the contrary was found. Qualitative comparison between first visitors and regular guests suggest that experienced dogs integrate faster, showing fewer behavioural signs of distress and engaging more often in investigatory behaviour. Results indicate that the assessment of dogs from their behaviour during the entry-sequence is a valid method to predict later tendencies. Males and females should be handled differently during introduction. The stress of entry into an existing group can therefore be reduced, improving the animals' welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, dogs, integration, introduction, shelter, social behaviour
WELFARE BY DESIGN: THE NATURAL SELECTION OF WELFARE CRITERIA
C J Barnard* and J L Hurst
Behaviour and Ecology Research Group, Department of Life Science, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 10 June 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 405-433
The scientific study of animal welfare has generated a welter of complex, equivocal and often contradictory results. Consequently, there is little agreement about how impairment of welfare should be measured. While some solutions to this have been suggested, these have usually relied on more sophisticated versions of, or more control over, existing measures. However, we argue that the difficulties arise because of questionable assumptions in the definition and measurement of welfare, in particular the measurement of suffering and the assumed importance of individual well-being. We contend that welfare can be interpreted only in terms of what natural selection has designed an organism to do and how circumstances impinge on its functional design. Organisms are designed for self-expenditure and the relative importance of self-preservation and survival, and the concomitant investment of time and resources in different activities, varies with life history strategy. The traditional notions of coping and stress are anthropomorphisms based on homeostatic mechanisms of self-preservation in a long-lived species. Suffering-like states are viewed as generalized subjective states that are geared to avoiding deleterious circumstances with which the organism does not have specific adaptive mechanisms to deal. Attempts to measure suffering-like states directly are likely to remain inconclusive, at least for the foreseeable future, because such states are private and subjective, may take many forms fundamentally different from our own and are likely to depend on the operation of phenotype-limited priorities and decision rules. However, measuring the impact of circumstances on functional design via the organism's decision rules provides a practicable means of giving benefit of the doubt by indicating when suffering, or an analogous subjective state, is likely.
Keywords: animal welfare, anthropomorphism, coping, decision rules, fitness, life history, measurement, stress, suffering
AN ASSESSMENT OF STRESS CAUSED IN SHEEP BY WATCHING SLAUGHTER OF OTHER SHEEP
M H Anil*, J Preston, J L McKinstry, R G Rodway¹ and S N Brown
School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY, UK
1 Department of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Final acceptance: 20 June 1996
Abstract Animal Welfare 1996, 5: 435-441
The question of whether witnessing slaughter of conspecifics is distressing was investigated in sheep. Previously catheterized sheep were allowed to see the stunning and sticking (exsanguination) of other sheep. Heart rate was monitored and serial blood samples were taken to assess stress responses. Although the measurable parameter levels were generally high due to human contact and handling, there were no specific increases in response to witnessing stunning and slaughter. This work failed to produce any evidence to suggest that sheep are distressed by witnessing the slaughter act.
Keywords: animal welfare, sheep, slaughter, stress
