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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 4 Abstracts
ZEBRA FINCH BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECT OF MODEST ENRICHMENT OF STANDARD CAGES
H Jacobs, N Smith, P Smith, L Smyth, P Yew, P Saibaba and J Hau*
Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, The Royal Veterinary College (University of London), Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 3-9
Zebra finches are often housed in monogamous pairs in small barren cages. In the present study it was investigated whether modest enrichment resulted in behavioural changes. Four plywood box cages of two different lengths were compared. A small and a large cage were used for the barren environment. Another small and large cage were used for the enriched environment, and included additional perches, twigs as well as sand and water baths. An ethogram consisting of 19 different behavioural patterns was used. The behaviour of the birds was studied using a combination of alternating (20s) one-zero and instantaneous sampling, one hour per day during a continuous four-week period.
Locomotor activity, vocalization and singing was significantly increased in the enriched cages and flying was more frequent in the large enriched cage than in any of the other cages. The study demonstrated the usefulness of behavioural analyses to determine to what extent simple enrichment allows the birds to exhibit a wider range of their natural behaviour.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, cage enrichment, zebra finches
WELFARE ASPECTS OF THE COMMERCIAL SLAUGHTER OF WHALES
S C Kestin
Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol, Avon BS18 7DY, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 11-27
Recently, the method by which Japanese and Norwegian whalers kill minke whales has come under scrutiny on welfare grounds. Whales are still caught with a grenade tipped harpoon fired from a cannon. The harpoon is targeted to strike the animal in the thorax, though the pattern of harpoon strikes is variable and some can even be struck in the tail. Once the whale is harpooned, it is winched to the ship and if not dead, attempts are made to kill it either by electrocution or with rifles. Some studies indicate that less than 30 per cent of animals are killed instantaneously, though best practice can achieve 50 per cent of animals killed instantaneously but with wounded animals surviving for up to one hour. To kill any wild animal humanely, immediate insensibility must be induced. Whilst in principle the methods used on whales could induce immediate insensibility, there are indications that neither harpooning nor the secondary killing processes, like electrocution or rifle bullets, are achieving this in an acceptable proportion of the animals taken. Comparison of the killing processes used on minke whales with killing processes used on other animals, indicated that there are several areas where improvements could increase the proportion of whales killed instantaneously and reduce the suffering of wounded animals. Whilst harpooning may remain the favoured method of taking whales, and some improvements have been made in the number of whales killed instantaneously, the equipment has evolved little from that originally developed by the Norwegians in the Nineteenth Century. As currently practised few people would consider the current methods employed by the whaling industry to be humane.
Keywords: animal welfare, whales, whaling, grenade, harpoon
FACTORS INFLUENCING PIG DEATHS DURING TRANSIT: AN ANALYSIS OF DRIVERS' REPORTS
T A Abbott, H J Guise*, E J Hunter, R H C Penny, P J Baynes and C Easby
* Cambac JMA Research, Lower Cadleys, South Stoke, Reading RG8 0LX, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 29-40
A haulage company, transporting pigs for a marketing group, has monitored information about journeys and kept records of deaths in transit (DIT). These data can be used to set guidelines and they highlight those areas of pig transport that need further study.
Factors, other than genetic ones, which may contribute to the rate of DIT were considered. A strict seasonal effect was not apparent, but where conditions were hot and wet there was an increase in DIT. There was also a 'time of day' effect, with transport in the afternoon showing a higher rate of DIT than transport in the morning. It was observed that if pigs were deemed dirty at loading then DIT were more likely. Clean pigs at loading could indicate that hygienic and environmental conditions in the finishing stage were good. Individual producers showed a wide variation in their rate of DIT, with some producers regularly experiencing a high level. Routine monitoring of the rate of DIT and transport conditions could help to pinpoint the source, and possible cause, of the problem.
Information that helps in the understanding of transit deaths is important because if stress in the period from selection to slaughter can be reduced, there should be both economic as well as welfare benefits.
Keywords: animal welfare, pigs, transport, transit deaths
ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT FOR LAYING HENS - SPHERICAL OBJECTS IN THE FEED TROUGH
C M Sherwin
Division of Animal Health and Husbandry, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Bristol, Langford House, Bristol BS18 7DU, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 41-51
The welfare of caged laying hens could be improved by placing objects in the feed trough. Such objects might (a) simulate general ground-litter thus promoting more normal foraging activity and (b) give hens the opportunity to 'work' for feed &endash; a behaviour usually thwarted in conventional cages. Spherical objects with various characteristics were placed in the feed trough of a tier of caged laying hens (n = 16). The hens pecked frequently at the objects, moving them to the trough space of adjacent cages. The mean proportion of hen heads over the trough containing these objects was significantly greater than before the objects were present (35.3 cf 32.9%) and significantly greater than the proportion of heads over a similar trough containing no objects (33.6%). Thirty days later, the mean proportions were still significantly different (33.5 cf 31.0%) showing that there was little habituation. Daily manual scattering of the objects increased the distance they were subsequently moved by the hens (23.0 cf 19.3cm/day) indicating increased pecking activity. In a second study 12 hens were given a choice of feeding from troughs containing 0, 12 or 36 spherical objects. There was no overall preference to feed from any of the troughs. All the hens fed from troughs containing the objects, possibly indicating that the opportunity to move the objects and forage or work for feed was desired on occasions. Brightly coloured spherical objects are considered to be a promising method of successful environmental enrichment for caged laying hens. Their use to improve the welfare of caged laying hens appears to be practical and reasonably inexpensive.
Keywords: animal welfare, laying hens, environmental enrichment, foraging
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING RESTING BEHAVIOUR OF SHEEP IN SLAUGHTERHOUSE LAIRAGES AFTER TRANSPORT FROM FARMS
A M Jarvis* and M S Cockram
Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Veterinary Field Station, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 53-60
The resting behaviour of 64 groups of sheep was observed in the lairages of two slaughterhouses after transport for about four hours in a commercial livestock transporter. The sheep were scanned at five minute intervals for the initial three hours in the lairage pen. The median percentage of time spent lying per group was 17 per cent (range 1 to 63). The percentage of time spent lying was not significantly related to the duration of transport, time of arrival or slaughterhouse. There was a significant positive relationship between space allowance (range 0.22 to 0.98 m2 per sheep) and percentage of time spent lying per group (P<0.001). Increased space allowance also tended to be associated with a decrease in the occurrence of all interactions between the sheep (P = 0.05). Groups penned with two unfamiliar groups tended to spend less time lying than those penned on their own or with one other group (P = 0.07). There was no significant difference in the total percentage of time spent lying by groups penned on slats and those penned on straw. The results indicated that the ability of sheep to rest in the lairage may be compromised by providing low space allowances.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, lairage, resting, sheep
KEEPING CIRCUS ELEPHANTS TEMPORARILY IN PADDOCKS - THE EFFECTS ON THEIR BEHAVIOUR
J Schmid
Universität Institut 1, Erlangen/N*rnberg, Staudstr 5, 91058 Erlangen
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 87-101
The purpose of this study was to investigate the behavioural effects of keeping circus elephants in paddocks. Therefore some species-typical behavioural characters and the occurrence of stereotyped movements were observed and compared in unshackled paddock keeping versus shackled keeping. The investigation includes 29 elephants (19 Elephas maximus, 10 Loxodonta africana) at four circuses located in Germany and in Switzerland.
The results showed that paddocks offered more freedom for comfort, social and play behaviour since such activities were observed more frequently in paddocks than in shackled keeping. Also, stereotyped movements were nearly absent in paddocks and very frequent in shackled keeping. In comparison to shackled keeping, paddocks were more suitable for the needs of elephants.
Keywords: circus elephant, comfort behaviour, paddock keeping, play behaviour, social behaviour, stereotyped movements.
SCIENCE, VALUES AND ANIMAL WELFARE: EXPLORING THE 'INEXTRICABLE CONNECTION'
D Fraser
Centre for Food and Animal Research, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa K1A 0C6, Canada
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 103-117
In conceptualizing animal welfare, it is useful to distinguish among three types of concepts. 'Type 1' are single, measurable attributes. 'Type 2' are single attributes that cannot be measured directly but can be estimated by correctly combining various contributing attributes. 'Type 3' are concepts involving multiple attributes which are grouped together because they serve some common function, and whose relative importance cannot be established in an entirely objective way. Individuals who treat animal welfare as a type 1 concept may propose single, objective measures of welfare, such as longevity or levels of stress-related hormones; however, this approach rests on judgements, which are not purely objective, about the relative importance of different factors for an animal's quality of life. Studies of animal preferences and motivation are sometimes seen as an objective way to weight different attributes according to the animals' own priorities, and thus allow animal welfare to be treated as a type 2 concept. However, numerous technical and fundamental difficulties limit our ability to do this. Animal welfare is best seen as a type 3 concept incorporating multiple attributes, with considerable consensus over certain general principles (eg that a high level of welfare implies freedom from suffering) but with value-related disagreement over how these principles should be applied. Because the various attributes cannot be combined in a purely objective way, science is limited in its ability to determine the 'overall' welfare of an animal and to compare welfare in disparate environments. Instead of attempting to 'measure' animal welfare, the role of science should be seen as identifying, rectifying and preventing welfare problems.
Keywords: animal welfare, values, ethics, science
GERBILS PREFER PARTIALLY DARKENED CAGES
F A R Van den Broek*, H Klompmaker, R Bakker and A C Beynen
Small Animal Facility, Agricultural University, PO Box 8129, 6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 119-123
A test system previously described by Blom et al (1993) was used to investigate the preference of the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) with respect to light intensity in their cage, by comparing a standard transparent rodent cage with three cages darkened by either 25, 50 or 75 per cent. The ten animals included in the test spent most of their time in the cages that were darkened by 50 and 75 per cent, thus relatively avoiding the standard cage. Preference was mainly determined by visits longer than 15min and was therefore possibly associated with sleeping behaviour. Food and water consumption were not restricted to the preferred cages.
These results imply that gerbils should be housed preferably in cages that allow sheltering in relatively dark places. For this purpose, placing shelter objects in the cage should be considered.
Keywords: animal welfare, cages, gerbils, partially darkened, preference test.
THE USE OF ELECTRICITY TO KILL MINKE WHALES: HUMANE CONSIDERATIONS
H McLachlan
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), The Causeway, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 1HG, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 125-129
Whaling continues despite a global moratorium, and the methods of slaughter used are a controversial welfare issue. If a whale is not killed instantly by an explosive harpoon, the Japanese use electric lances as a secondary killing device.
Video footage was obtained which documented the sequence of events in Japanese whaling operations, including the harpooning and application of electric lances to seven whales. A minimum time to death of each whale was estimated. To achieve immediate insensibility using electrical stunning, the electrodes must span the brain. This video revealed that electrodes tend to be placed between the pectoral and dorsal fins, and on the same side of the whale. In this case only a small proportion of current would pass through the brain, and ventricular fibrillation is unlikely. Previous work has shown that the currents used were likely to be 50&endash;100 times too small to cause cardiac fibrillation or cerebral dysfunction.
A humane death cannot be achieved with inappropriate placement of lances and inadequate current application. A more effective secondary killing method is necessary.
Keywords: animal welfare, whales, whaling, harpoons, electric lances
A COMPARISON OF WOODEN SLATS AND STRAW BEDDING ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF SHEEP
G D H Gordon and M S Cockram*
Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Veterinary Field Station, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG
* Contact for correspondence
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 131-134
The behaviour of two groups of sheep was observed when they were placed in a pen on wooden slats and/or on straw bedding for 48h. When sheep were placed in the pen and not given a choice of slats and straw, the proportion of scans spent standing and lying by one group of sheep were not affected by floor surface, whereas another group lay down more on the straw than on the slats during the first 24h in the pen. There was more movement when on straw than on slats. When given a choice of either slats or straw for 48h, the sheep spent more than half of the scans on straw. The study showed that sheep show a preference for lying down on straw compared with wooden slats. However, sheep will lie down on wooden slats. Although straw is, quite rightly, recommended as a suitable surface for lying, there was little evidence in this study that slats provide an unsuitable surface for a slaughterhouse lairage pen.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, floor, sheep
ENVIRONMENTALLY ENRICHED HOUSING FOR CATS WHEN HOUSED SINGLY
G G Loveridge, L J Horrocks and A J Hawthorne
Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition, Waltham-on-the-Wolds, Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire LE14 4RT, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 135-141
It is generally accepted that to carry out certain trials or procedures, particularly metabolism or digestibility studies, it is necessary to house animals singly, often in sterile metal cages which differ greatly from the animal's normal living accommodation. The lack of choice, mental and physical stimulation and general 'creature comforts' increases the stress of isolation.
The design of the buildings at the Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition aim to ameliorate these unsatisfactory conditions and provide environmental enrichment, freedom of choice and mental and physical stimulation, in housing as similar as possible to the normal housing of domestic pets.
Keywords: animal welfare, cats, housed singly, companion animals, environmental enrichment, human-animal contact
SUCCESSFUL MOTHER- AND GROUP-REARING OF A NEWBORN CAPUCHIN MONKEY (CEBUS CAPUCINUS) FOLLOWING EMERGENCY MAJOR SURGERY
J R Anderson¹*, E Andre² and P Wolf³
1 Laboratoire de Psychologie, Univerisdad Louis Pasteur (CNRS URA 1295), 67000 Strasbourg, France
2 Centre de Primatologie, Universite Louis Pasteur, 67207 Niederhausbergen, France
3 Fondation Transplantation, 67000 Strasbourg, France
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 171-182
During capture, in order to separate him from a possessive adult female and return him to his mother, a newborn male in a laboratory group of Cebus capucinus monkeys was found to have a seriously infected compound fracture of the humerus associated with a deep and extensive slash wound. Amputation of the affected limb was deemed necessary. Shortly after surgery the newborn was returned to his mother, in isolation from the group, with periodic removal of post-surgical care. Three weeks later the mother-newborn pair was returned to the social group and no further invertention occurred. Regular observations revealed mutual behavioural adjustments to the handicapp by the mother and newborn. Compared to a normal age-mate, the amputee received more positive social attention from the mother and other group-members. Despite his showing delays in locomotor and manipulatory activities, the handicapped infant showed good behavioural progress. Early resocialisation thus appears feasible following emergency surgery in newborn primates.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, development, maternal behaviour, rearing, surgery
THE WELFARE OF FREE-LIVING WILD ANIMALS IN EUROPE: HARM CAUSED BY HUMAN ACTIVITIES
A W Sainsbury*, P M Bennett and J K Kirkwood
Institute of Zoology, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 183-206
As part of a study into the effects of human activities on the welfare of free-living wildlife, the relative scale and severity of welfare problems in wild mammals and birds in Europe were investigated. Major cases were described and compared in terms of the nature and level of harm )pain, stress and fear) they cause, the duration of these effects and the number of individuals affected. The use of anticoagulant rodenticides, myxomatosis in rabbits, the poisoning of wildfowl by ingested lead shot, the contamination of seabirds with fuel oil, the effects of shooting, injuries due to collisions with road traffic and predation by dsomestic cats all severely compromise the welfare of large numbers of animals. Practical approaches to the alleviation and prevention of some of these welfare problems are discussed. We suggest that in assessing the environmental impact of new developments and technologies prior to their implementation, possible consequences to wildlife welfare should always be considered.
Keywords: animal welfare, birds, control, free-living, hunting, mammals, myxomatosis, pain, poisoning, road deaths, shooting, stress, wildlife
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT ON BEHAVIOUR AND PRODUCTIVITY OF GROWING PIGS
V E Beattie*, N Walker and I A Sneddon¹
The Agricultural Research Institute of Northern Ireland, Hillsborough, Co Down BT26 6DR
1 School of Psychology, The Queen's University of Belfast, BT7 1NN Northern Ireland
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 207-220
This study examined the effects of enriching the environment on the behaviour and productivity of pigs, in an attempt to assess changes in welfare. A total of 102 pigs were housed in either barren or enriched housing from birth to slaughter. The barren environments were defined as intensive housing and the enriched environments incorporated extra space, an area which contained peat and straw in a rack. Enriching the environment reduced both the amount of time pigs spent inactive and the the time involved in harmful social and aggressive behaviour. Tail biting was absent from the enriched environment but four pigs were removed from barren pens with severe tail damage. Pigs housed in enriched environments spent longer durations in exploratory behaviour than those in barren housing and young pigs in enriched environments performed locomotory behaviour more frequently than their counterparts in barren environments. Overall growth rates were similar in both treatments. These results indicate that welfare is improved by enrichment with substrates and suggest that barren pens should be modified to provide these facilities.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, environmental enrichment, pigs
RESTRAINT METHODS OF LABORATORY NON-HUMAN PRIMATES: A CRITICAL REVIEW
V Reindardt*, C Liss and C Stevens
Animal Welfare Institute, PO Box 3650, Washington DC 20007, USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: 4605 Crescent Road, Madison WI 5371, USA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 221-238
Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human pruimates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in significantly increased adrenal activity as well as significant changes in a variety of other physiological parameters. There is no scientific evidence that the animals adequately habituate to involuntary restraint. Numerous reports have been published demonstrating that non-human primates can readily be trained to cooperate rather than resist during common handling procedures such as capture, venipuncture, injection and veterinary examination. Cooperative animals fail to show behavioural and physiological signs of distress. it was conc luded that the advantages of training techniques over traditional restraint techniques will have to be explored more extensively in the future for the sake of research subjects and scientific methodology.
Keywords: animal welfare, handling, non-human primates, psychological well-being, restraint, social support, stress, training, unfamiliar environment
THE IMPORTANCE OF AGE/SEX CLASS RELATIONSHIPS FOR CAPTIVE-BREEDING - A REVIEW OF MACROPODOIDEA (KANGEROOS, WALLABIES AND RAT-KANGAROOS) AS A CASE STUDY
U Ganslosser
Zoological Institute 1, Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg, Staudstr 5, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 239-249
In this paper social relationships (as defined by Hinde) between age/sex classes of kangeroos, wallabies and rat-kangeroos are reviewed and characterised by frequencies, direction and, where possible, intensity of behavioural interactions, by their patterning in sequences and by distance regulation. Male social organisation in the wild for larger non-solitary species is organized in an age/size-related hierarchy. Frequent interactions among equal-sized males stabilize this hierachy and large males by their simple presence deter younger ones from courting.
Depending on social organisation in the wild, the presence of one of more males, sometimes males from different age classes, is desirable from the animal welfare standpoint.
The structure of breeding groups can be greatly improved in terms of welfare and breeding optimisation, when a diversity of social relationships are as close to natural conditions as possible.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, courtship, ethology, Macropodidae, mating system, Potoroidae, social behaviour, social organization
A QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY OF THE CORRECTION METHODS FOR VAGINAL PROLAPSE IN EWES
P R Scott*, N D Sargison, C D Penny and W D Strachan
Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 251-254
A questionnaire on methods of replacement and retention of pre-parturient vaginal prolapse, performed by the shepherd or veterinary surgeon, was completed by 108 veterinary undergraduates students after their farm experience as lambing assistants. The retention methods routinely employed included various suture patterns (72 replies; 66.7%), a plastic intravaginal retaining device (17.6%) and a truss (15.7%). In the sutured group, Buhner perivulval sutures, purse string perivulval sutures and horizontal mattress sutures had been used in 13 per cent, 46.4 per cent and 40.6 per cent of replies respectively. While 5mm nylon tape had been used for 52 of 72 (72.2%) procedures, autoclaved suture material had been used in only 29.6 per cent of replies. No analgesia was employed prior to placing the sutures in 40 (55.6%) replies. Frequent or pronounced abdominal straining by the ewe during replacement of the vaginal prolapse was observed by 69 of 108 respondents (63.9%). On a subjective basis 20 students (18.5%) considered that the welfare consequences of the procedure were a matter of concern and a further 40 students (37.0%) judged that the welfare consequences of the procedure were poor.
Keywords: animal welfare, sheep, vaginal prolapse
WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF THE GAS STUNNING OF PIGS 1. DETERMINATION OF AVERSION TO THE INITIAL INHALATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE OR ARGON
A B M Raj* and N G Gregory¹
Division of Food Animal Science, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University ofBristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY
1 Faculty of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 273-280
The aversive effects of 90 per cent argon in air, 30 per cent carbon dioxide in air or 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air were investigated in slaughter weight pigs. Aversion was assessed from their reluctance to enter the three gaseous atmospheres to obtain a reward (apples). The pigs did not show any aversion to the inhalation of 90 per cent argon in air. The majority of the pigs did not show aversion to the presence of 30 per cent carbon dioxide in air. By contrast, the inhalation of 90 per cent carbon dioxide was aversive to the majority of the pigs. Fasting them for up to 24h prior to testing did not overcome the pigs' reluctance to enter an atmosphere containing 90 per cent carbon dioxide.
Keywords: animal welfare, argon, aversion, carbon dioxide, inhalation, pigs, stunning
THE CONDITION AND SURVIVAL AFTER RELEASE OF CAPTIVE-REARED FOX CUBS
C P J Robertson and S Harris*
School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1UG, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 281-294
In Britain large numbers of animals are taken into captivity for treatment or care and then subsequently returned to the wild, but there are few data on the effectiveness of these rehabilitation programmes. In this study, over a period of four years 251 fox cubs that had been captive-reared were tagged and released; 90 were recovered. Survival rates were low, and road traffic accidents were found to be a major cause of mortality immediately following release. Recovery distances were lower than expected. The stress associated with captive-rearing meant that released foxes weighed less than wild-reared foxes, and they suffered further weight loss in the period immediately following release, even though an analysis of the stomach contents of animals recovered dead showed that released foxes rapidly learnt to hunt successfully.
It was concluded that captive-rearing is a problematic process for foxes, and contrary to predictions they face severe problems in adapting following release. Suggestions are made for the improvement of fox captive-rearing and release programmes, and the need for similar studies on other species is highlighted.
Keywords: animal welfare, condition, fox, rehabilitation, release from captivity, survival
THE BEHAVIOUR AFTER RELEASE OF CAPTIVE-REARED FOX CUBS
C P J Robertson and S Harris*
School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1UG, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 295-306
The release of animals from captivity frequently leads to a period of erratic movement behaviour which is thought to expose the animal to a high risk of mortality. Twenty-six foxes which had been reared at a wildlife hospital or captive-bred, were radio-collared when nearly full-grown and released without site acclimation. Immediately after release there was an erratic phase of behaviour, during which the foxes travelled widely and movement parameters were markedly elevated. For those foxes which survived, a second phase was entered after an average of 17.2 days, during which one small area only was used, and movement parameters were much reduced. In a second study, nine foxes were released following site acclimation in a pre-release pen; this process postponed but did not eliminate the phase of high movement activity.
This pattern of movement was compared with the dispersal behaviour of wild-reared foxes. It was concluded that released foxes, despite being proficient in other aspects of behaviour, were moving and behaving in a markedly abnormal manner and this resulted in a high death rate. The results are used to discuss methods of improving rehabilitation techniques.
Keywords: animal welfare, dispersal, fox, radio-tracking, rehabilitation, release from captivity
SOCIAL HOUSING OF PREVIOUSLY SINGLE-CAGED MACAQUES: WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS AND THE RISKS?
V Reinhardt*, C Liss and C Stevens
Animal Welfare Institute, PO Box 3650, Washington, DC 20007, USA
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: 4605 Crescent Road, Madison WI 53711, USA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 307-328
A review of the scientific literature gives evidence that transferring previously single-caged adult macaques to permanent compatible pair-housing arrangements (isosexual pairs, adult/infant pairs) is associated with less risk of injury and morbidity than transferring them to permanent group-housing arrangements. Juvenile animals can readily be transferred to permanent group-housing situations without undue risks. Safe pair formation and subsequent pair-housing techniques have been developed for female and male rhesus (Macaca mulatta), stump-tailed (M. arctoides) and pig-tailed macaques (M. nemestrina) as well as for female long-tailed macaques (M. fascicularis). Pair housing does not jeopardize the animals' physical health but it increases their behavioural health by providing them with an adequate environment to satisfy their need for social contact and social interaction.
Keywords: aggression, animal welfare, behavioural health, compatibility, distress, morbidity, primates, psychological well-being, social housing, undernourishment
EFFECTS OF LIGHTING ON HEART RATE AND POSITIONAL PREFERENCES DURING CONFINEMENT IN FARMED RED DEER
J C Pollard* and R P Littlejohn
Invermay Agricultural Centre, Private Bag 50034, Mosgiel, New Zealand
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 329-337
Two experiments were carried out to determine whether lighting conditions during handling affected heart rate or behaviour in farmed red deer. In Experiment 1 heart rate was measured in 24 individual deer, held under restraint in a mechanical deer crush for two minutes, under either dark (0lux) or light (1500lux) conditions. A stethoscope was used to monitor heartbeat which was indicated vocally by the stethoscope operator on to a Dictaphone. In Experiment 2, 10 groups of three deer were confined for four minutes in an unfamiliar 4x6m light-proof pen with lighting provided either on the left or right-hand side of the pen, to provide a gradient across the pen from approximately 12 to 1000lux. For the first two minutes the deer were alone and for the second two minutes a person stood in the pen. An infrared video camera was used to record behaviour.
In Experiment 1, heart rate was lower (P<0.05) in the dark compared with in the light when recording commenced, thereafter it decreased overall with similar (P>0.05) values observed for the different lighting treatments. In Experiment 2, the mean position of the groups across the pen varied according to whether lighting was on the left or right, with groups displaced to the right when the lights were on the left, and standing in the middle of the pen when the lights were on the right (P<0.05). During testing, groups moved away from whichever side the lights were on (P<0.05). The experiments suggested that stress during restraint was reduced by providing darkness and that deer preferred dim lighting compared with bright lighting when confined in unfamiliar surroundings.
Keywords: animal welfare, handling, heart rate, lighting, preferences, red deer
SALIVARY IgA: A POSSIBLE STRESS MARKER IN DOGS
S Skandakumar, G Stodulski and J Hau*
Laboratory Animal Science and Welfare, Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Royal College Street, London NW1 OTU, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints.
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 339-350
Stress in humans has been reported to be associated with a decrease in the salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) levels enabling the possible use of s-IgA to assess stress. Prolonged stress, if reliably assessed in a non-invasive manner, may be used to assess animal welfare. This study analysed groups of dogs undergoing physical and temperamental training and s-IgA levels were measured by rocket immunoelectrophoresis in prospective samples. Behavioural assessment was carried out and cortisol levels in saliva were measured by ELISA. A significant negative correlation (P<0.007) between the logarithmic cortisol concentrations and s-IgA levels in saliva was recorded. The behavioural assessment of the dogs agreed well with the biochemical markers. It is concluded that IgA levels in saliva may be a useful marker of dog well-being and that stress results in decreased s-IgA levels.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, cortisol, dog, salivary IgA (s-IgA), stress, well-being
EFFECT OF HUMAN CONTACT ON HEART RATE OF PIGS
R Geers*, G Janssens, H Villé, E Bleus, H Gerard, S Janssens and J Jourquin¹
Laboratory of Agricultural Buildings Research, KU Leuven, Kard. Mercierlaan 92, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
1 Seghers Hybrid, Buggenhout, Belgium
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 351-359
Pigs were selected at random from three lines (homozygous halothane positive, homozygous negative, and the heterozygotes). They were housed for four weeks within standardized environmental conditions with six pigs per pen corresponding to each of the three lines with two treatment combinations (6x3x2). Half of the pigs were allocated to routine care without humans entering the pen, while the other ones received an increased human contact treatment; animal-man interaction times were recorded. Before and after the four-week experimental period, pigs were housed individually for one day. A blood sample was taken for beta-endorphin analysis and heart rate was measured. The final heart rate measurements were continued during a transport of two hours. With respect to animal-man interaction times no clear treatment effect was observed. Increased human contact lowered the plasma beta-endorphin content to a greater extent as a function of time, while heart rate also became lower. The latter may result in an improved heart function during handling and transport. Differences with regard to the halothane gene were observed during housing conditions, but not during transport.
Keywords: animal-man interaction, animal welfare, beta-endorphin, heart rate, pigs, transport
PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT TECHNIQUES FOR AFRICAN LIONS (Panthera leo)
D M Powell
Department of Zoology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-4415
Abstract Animal Welfare 1995, 4: 361-370
A study was conducted over 24 days to evaluate the effects of three environmental enrichment techniques (frozen balls of ice containing fish, various scents, hanging logs) on four captive African lions (Panthera leo). Behavioural data on activity level and behavioural diversity were collected daily during a baseline and an enriched session. All enrichments produced positive changes in behaviour. Enrichment was also associated with increased use of space by the lions. The enrichment techniques evaluated in this study each produced distinct and positive changes in behaviour thus reinforcing the need for variety to be exercised in captive enrichment programmes. Providing different enrichments allows animals to perform a greater range of behaviours, become more active in captivity, and will decrease the likelihood of habituation to certain enrichment items. Environmental enrichment should be a part of any management protocol for animal welfare and health.
Keywords: African lion, animal welfare, environmental enrichment
