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Animal Welfare - Content and Abstracts
Volume 1 Abstracts
BULLFIGHTING AND ANIMAL WELFARE
F Odberg
State University of Ghent (RUG) and Free University of Brussels (VUB) RUG, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Husbandry, Heidestraat 19, B-9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 3-12
Various arguments in favour of and against bullfighting are reviewed. The author advocates a thorough and knowledgeable adaptation, suppressing bloodshed and other sufferings. Through history, the evolution of bullfighting consists of a gradual trend towards the `art for the art'. Such a solution would not only keep and even stimulate the aesthetic aspects, but has also more chances to save the animals. Strategically speaking, a fight for total suppression is unlikely to succeed anyway or will last too long.
Keywords: animal welfare, bullfighting, horses, Iberic countries, traditions
THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN
P R Wiepkema¹ and J M Koolhaas²
1 Department of Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University, P O Box 338, 6708 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
2 Department of Animal Physiology, University of Groningen, P O Box 14, 9750 AA Haren, The Netherlands
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 13-18
Individual vertebrates are able to detect spatial and temporal (causal) order in their environment and deal with this knowledge emotionally. It is argued that this latter aspect is connected with the flexible or reversible way vertebrates may interact with their environment. Because of this flexibility, uncertainty and changes therein can be experienced and shown by means of emotional expressions. It is this brain-behaviour organization that gives meaning to questions about welfare of individual vertebrates.
Keywords: animal welfare, emotions, knowledge, vertebrates
BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES OF PARK RED AND FALLOW DEER TO DISTURBANCE AND EFFECTS ON POPULATION PERFORMANCE
J Langbein and R J Putman
Deer Management Research Group, Department of Biology, University of Southampton School of Biological Sciences, Bassett Crescent East, Southampton, UK SO9 3TU
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 19-38
Within two London parks, Richmond and Bushy, both subject to high public visitor pressure, behavioural observations were undertaken to investigate patterns of habitat use by red and fallow deer populations, and to determine the response of the deer to human disturbance. Potentially disturbing events were considered as: i. people present within a distance of < 50m; ii. people present within 50m accompanied by a dog on a lead; iii. dogs within 50m off the lead; iv. people `crowding' the deer - approaching directly and deliberately for photographs or closer observation; v. actual chases by a dog of the deer group or a member of that group.
All the above levels of disturbance caused a measurable change in the immediate behaviour patterns of the deer - reflected in increased levels of vigilance. Females responded more strongly than males of either species. However, the effects were relatively minor and transient in the great majority of cases, with animals resuming their normal activity very quickly after the encounter.
Overall daily time-budgets did not differ significantly between undisturbed days and days when disturbance levels were high; nor were any effects apparent on patterns of habitat use by the deer or in forcing the animals to change habitat more frequently. Further, throughout our studies there was no evidence that levels of disturbance caused by public access had any deleterious effects on body-weights or overwinter mortality.
Keywords: animal welfare, deer parks, disturbance, fallow deer, population performance, red deer
THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL TURF AS A FORAGING SUBSTRATE FOR INDIVIDUALLY HOUSED RHESUS MONKEYS (MACACA MULATTA)
K Bayne¹, S Dexter¹, H Mainzer¹, C McCully², G Campbell³ and F Yamada³.
1 Office of Animal Care and Use, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Building 14D, Room 313, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
2 Pediatric Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
3 Division of Computer Research and Technology, National Institutes of Health
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 39-54
The provisioning of foraging opportunities to primates has been shown to be an effective means of enriching the laboratory environment.In this study artificial turf was used as the substrate for a particulate food given to the subjects as an environmental enrichment technique. Eight rhesus monkeys exhibited a significant reduction in behavioural pathology when allowed to extend the amount of time they spent in consummatory activities. An increasing trend in time spent foraging with a concomitant decline in aberrant behaviour over a period of six months was particularly noteworthy. No significant difference in preference for particulate monkey chow or more flavourful particulate food treats was expressed by the primates.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental enrichment, psychological well-being
REACTIONS OF CATTLE TO HEAD-RESTRAINT AT STUNNING: A PRACTICAL DILEMMA
R Ewbank, M J Parker and C W Mason
Humane Slaughter Association,
34 Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts EN6 3PA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 55-63
The behavioural reactions and blood cortisol levels of cattle stunned using a penetrating captive-bolt pistol whilst standing free in a stunning box were compared with those obtained from cattle similarly stunned but with their heads held in a hydraulically operated chin-lift type of head restrainer. Few (8 out of 55) animals voluntarily put their heads into the restrainer, most had to be `persuaded' to use the head-restrainer; some (5 out of 24) could not be. The mean time between entry into the stunning pen and the stun for 23 free standing animals was 5.6s and for 19 animals which could be persuaded to use the head restrainer was 34.2s. The cortisol levels in the blood taken at the stick, from 30 animals stunned while standing free was 67.6 nmol/litre while that from 30 stunned while head-restrained was 143.1 nmol/litre. The behaviour and cortisol results suggest that enforced usage of this type of head restrainer could be a cause of distress to the cattle involved.
Keywords: animal welfare, cattle, head-restraint, slaughter, stunning
THE USE OF ANALOGOUS REASONING FOR ASSESSING DISCOMFORT IN LABORATORY ANIMALS
F R Stafleu¹,³, E Rivas², T Rivas², J Vorstenbosch³, F R Heeger³, and A C Beynen¹
1 Department of Laboratory Animal Science, State University of Utrecht, P O Box 80.166, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
2 Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of Theoretical Psychology, State University of Utrecht
3 Centre for Bio-ethics and Health Law, State University of Utrecht
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 77-84
When assessing discomfort in animals analogous reasoning is often used, namely, that the causes or symptoms of discomfort in people will also apply to animals. This practical rule of thumb can be based on an `analogy-postulate'. This postulate takes into account the anatomical and physiological similarities of vertebrate nervous systems and the comparability and homology in the behavioural and physiological responses to discomfort of humans and other vertebrates in similar situations. There are theoretical and practical problems with this analogous reasoning. Theoretical objections include claims that feelings do not exist, are irrelevant or that scientific knowledge is not necessary to recognize feelings. Practical problems will occur when assessing the discomfort of animals without proper knowledge of the relevant species-specific information. Nevertheless, we think that there are two equivalent sound reasons for accepting the analogy-postulate. First, there is more evidence in favour of acceptance of the postulate than of its rejection. Secondly, the negative moral consequences of erroneously rejecting the postulate are far greater than those of mistakenly accepting it.
Keywords: analogy, animal welfare, assessment, discomfort, postulate
OBSERVATIONS OF CATTLE RESTRAINT DEVICES FOR STUNNING AND SLAUGHTERING
T Grandin
Department of Animal Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 85-90
Proper design of restraint equipment is essential to prevent stress on animals during handling, stunning and slaughter. A small design mistake which may appear to be insignificant to the engineer can be extremely detrimental to animal welfare. Operators of restraint equipment must be properly trained. Cattle will place their heads into stanchion (yoke) or chin-lift types of head-restrainers if they are gently moved forward by a rear pusher gate. Cattle confined in an upright ASPCA pen for religious slaughter will remain calmer if the apparatus is gently closed around them. The vertical travel of the belly lift should be restricted to 71 cm (28 in) ó it should not lift the animals off the floor. The rear pusher gates should be equipped with a separate regulator to prevent excessive pressure from being applied. Stunning or ritual slaughter should be carried out within 10 seconds of the animal's head being restrained. The modified ASPCA pen described in the paper was seemingly humane when operated by people concerned about animal welfare.
Keywords: animal welfare, head-restraint, religious slaughter, slaughter, stunning
INDICATORS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS IN BROILER CHICKENS DURING ROAD TRANSPORTATION
M A Mitchell¹, P J Kettlewell² and M H Maxwell¹
1 AFRC Institute of Animal Physiological and Genetics Research, Edinburgh Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS
2 AFRC Silsoe Research Institute, Wrest Park, Silsoe
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 91-104
Differential leucocyte counts and plasma activities of the muscle enzyme, creatine kinase, have been determined in blood samples obtained from broiler chickens, immediately prior to and following road transportation from farm to processing plant for slaughter. These parameters are proposed as indicators of physiological stress based on previous findings.
Heterophil:lymphocyte ratios and plasma creatine kinase activities increased and eosinophil counts were decreased during the journey in birds tranported in both July and October when the curtain sides of the vehicles were open or closed respectively.
These findings are consistent with the presence of physiological stress during road transportation. The thermal microenvironments to which birds are exposed in transit are thought to represent one of the sources of this `transportation stress'.
Keywords: animal welfare, creatine kinase, haematology, physiological stress, transport stress
GROUP HOUSING AND ENRICHMENT CAGES FOR BREEDING, FATTENING AND LABORATORY RABBITS
M Stauffacher
University of Berne, Institute for Zoology, Department of Social and Applied Ethology, CH-3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 105-126
The commercial breeding of rabbits in individual cages presents a number of problems with respect to animal protection legislation. These problems are first presented in an overview of the subject. Starting from the behaviour shown by domestic rabbits in a richly structured near-to-nature enclosure, a new concept for keeping breeding groups is presented. In the housing system for breeding groups (4-5 does, 1 buck, plus young until weaned) which is then developed, the main characteristics of near-to-nature surroundings required for normal behaviour are replaced by manageable artificial substitutes. The individual components of the housing system and the spatial arrangements are described and discussed. Ethological examination of group breeding has shown that this housing system is both more suitable to the requirements of the rabbits themselves and more in the interest of breeders than the present commercial cage system. However, since cages will certainly remain the most important means of housing laboratory and fattening rabbits in the medium term, the ethological requirements for keeping domestic rabbits in cages will be also be discussed.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, breeding groups, enrichment housing, rabbits
COMPARING TWO MANIPULABLE OBJECTS AS ENRICHMENT FOR CAPTIVE CHIMPANZEES
J D Pruetz¹ and M A Bloomsmith²
1 The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Anthropology
2 The University of Texas, M D Anderson Cancer Center Science Park, Department of Veterinary Resources, Route 2, Box 151-B1, Bastrop, Texas 78602
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 127-137
This study compared the effectiveness of kraft wrapping paper and rubber toys as enrichment for 22 chimpanzees group-housed in conventional indoor/outdoor runs. Objects were tested separately during 67 hours of data collection using a group scan sampling technique. Paper was used a mean 27 per cent of the available time, while the Kong ToysTM were used a mean 10 per cent of the available time. The degree of object manipulation and object contact was higher with the paper, but the level of social play and solitary play with the object was not differentially affected by the two objects. The objects had differing effects on the subjects' levels of grooming, but affiliation, agonism, inactivity and sexual behaviour did not vary according to the object being used. A gender-by-age interaction was found, with immature males exhibiting the highest levels of solitary play with objects. Object use steadily declined over the first hour of exposure, showing evidence of habituation. Object use when the Kong ToyTM was present declined over the course of the study, but use of the paper remained consistent. Texture, destructibility, portability, complexity and adaptability may be important in determining the object's value as effective enrichment. The destructible wrapping paper was a more worthwhile enrichment object than the indestructible Kong ToyTM for the captive chimpanzees in this study.
Keywords: animal welfare, behavioural management, environmental enrichment, great apes, psychological well-being
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN RATS OF EXPERIMENT-INDUCED STRESS AND ITS IMPACT ON EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A C Beynen
Department of Laboratory Animal Science, State University of Utrecht, PO Box 80.166, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 153-160
Animals can communicate with one another through various types of signals. Evidence is presented that in certain experiments with rats, stress as induced by experimental treatment may give rise to the production of signals that affect non-treated animals housed nearby. Such communication between test and control animals may cause biased results and disturbed welfare of the latter. Communication of stress may be prevented by separate housing of control and test animals, but this could introduce another source of bias.
Keywords: animal welfare, biased results, communication, rats, stress
WOODCHIP BEDDING AS ENRICHMENT FOR CAPTIVE CHIMPANZEES IN AN OUTDOOR ENCLOSURE
L Brent
Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, Department of Laboratory Animal Medicine, P O Box 28147, San Antonio, Texas USA 78228-0147
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 161-170
The use of woodchips as bedding for 16 juvenile chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was evaluated for the effects on behaviour, health and husbandry practices. Woodchip bedding was placed in two outdoor play areas for five consecutive days. Behavioural data were recorded in the morning and afternoon of each day, and compared to pre- and post-test data. A total of 44 hours of observations, made up of 1 hour scan sample sessions, were completed for the study. Behaviours in the following categories were measured: abnormal, affinitive, aggressive, environmental manipulation, inactivity, locomotion, play, self manipulation and woodchip manipulation. The location of each animal was also recorded. Analysis of the data indicated that the chimpanzees engaged in woodchip-related behaviours for an average of 20.52 per cent of the data points, and that they spent more time manipulating the substrate in the morning than in the afternoon. In addition, abnormal behaviour, environmental manipulation and affinitive behaviours were significantly lower during the woodchip condition than during pre-test and post-test conditions. The subjects spent the most time on the floor of the enclosure, and this measure did not differ between conditions. The woodchip bedding did not cause any known health problems for the chimpanzees. Although the daily addition and removal of woodchips took more time than did routine cleaning, it kept the play areas cleaner and drier. The evaluation of woodchip bedding as enrichment was favourable and indicated that bedding may be used regularly in the maintenance of captive chimpanzees.
Key words: animal welfare, chimpanzees, enrichment, husbandry, woodchip bedding
THE BEHAVIOUR OF DOGS IN A RESCUE SHELTER
D Wells and P G Hepper¹
1 School of Psychology, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 171-186
Every year sees an increase in the number of dogs admitted to rescue shelters. However well these dogs are cared for in the shelter it cannot be ignored that being in such a situation is stressful, and the time spent in the shelter may change the dogs' behaviour which may in turn influence their chances of being bought from the shelter. This research examined the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs on their first, third and fifth days in an Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (USPCA) shelter. A questionnaire was also distributed to members of the public to determine how popular the USPCA was as a place from where to purchase a dog, and what factors about a dog's physical characteristics, behaviour and environment influenced potential buyers. Results revealed no significant difference between the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs although the public viewed stray dogs as much less desirable than unwanted dogs. Time in the shelter had no adverse effects on the dogs' behaviour. Indeed those changes which did occur during captivity, dogs being more relaxed in the presence of people and eating food more quickly, may be considered as positive changes. The USPCA was viewed as a popular place from which to buy a dog. Of factors influencing the public's choice, the dog's environment and behaviour appeared more important than its physical characteristics. The presence of a toy in the dog's cage greatly increased the public's preference for the dog, although the toy was ignored by the dog. The welfare implications of sheltering dogs are discussed.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, captivity, dogs, dog shelters, USPCA
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FOWLS' BATHING IN DUST
D W van Liere
Department of Animal Husbandry, Ethology Section, Agricultural University, PO Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
Present address: Groenkampen 67, 9407 RK Assen, The Netherlands
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 187-202
Dustbathing in fowls (eg chickens, Gallus gallus) consists of tossing the litter onto and between the fluffed feathers and subsequently enclosing it by flattening the feathers. The proximal contact between litters like sand and peat, and the integument is intensified by rubbing the body. This is not the case in wood-shavings which adhere to the distal plumage after tossing; rubbings in wood-shavings are frequently interrupted by reinitiated tossings. Lipids accumulate on the feathers and become stale during dust deprivation. Only baths in sand and peat are effective in removing excessive lipids from the proximal downy feather parts. Fluffiness of the down is highest in hens on peat, intermediate on sand and lowest on wood-shavings, while the reverse is true for the plumage surface temperature of the back. Hens monitor the integumental lipid condition which becomes causally connected with bathing in the course of experiencing litter bathing effects. It is shown from the author's experimental study that hens naive of bathing in litter, and hens experienced with wood-shavings initially shifted bathing litters but finally preferred peat or sand (in that order) when peat, sand and wood-shavings were simultaneously presented. Most of the hens experienced with bathing in sand did not shift to another substrate when presented with one. Recommendations are given concerning adequate dustbathing litter. A chronic deprivation of adequate litter leads to an uncontrollable condition of the lipids on the integument and an abnormal development of dustbathing. Such a deprivation therefore reduces animal welfare. Moreover, it is suggested to be costly.
Key words: animal welfare, dustbath, feather, fowl, lipid, litter
THE NATURE AND EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOURAL NEEDS IN MAMMALS
T B Poole
Universities Federation for Animal Welfare, 8 Hamilton Close, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts EN6 3QD, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 203-220
Mammals are unique among vertebrates in experiencing a need to carry out behaviours which are not necessary for their immediate survival. This poses questions as to the nature of these behavioural needs, how they evolved and their implications for the welfare of mammals in captivity. Evidence is provided to show that mammals carry out daily programmes of activity which meet four kinds of requirement, namely, for security, appropriate environmental complexity, novelty and opportunities for achievement. Within their programmes mammals perform two kinds of activity: work, which relates to day to day survival, and leisure, in the form of curiosity or play, which provides experience which may prove to be of value in the long term .
The existence of behavioural needs is consistent with our knowledge of mammalian evolution. Even the earliest known mammals, living over 120 million years ago, differed from reptiles in having brain to body size ratios four to five times greater. The increase in brain size resulted largely from the massive expansion of a region of the cerebral cortex, known as the neopallium, which acts as a co-ordinating centre for sensory data, and creates a model of the world which determines subsequent action. During the 60 million year tertiary era, relative brain size increased in most orders of eutherian mammals, so that only the more intelligent survived.
Because mammals rely for their survival on collecting and analyzing data and acting intelligently, they need facilities to search for information to establish and monitor their concept of the real world; their psychological well-being depends on an environment which offers such facilities. There are two kinds of behavioural needs; psychological needs, which appear to be unique to mammals, and ethological needs which are experienced by all vertebrates. It is concluded that environmental quality for captive mammals should not just be assessed negatively, by the absence of abnormal behaviours, but more positively by the extent to which it meets their psychological needs.
Keywords: animal welfare, behavioural needs, evolution, intelligence, mammals, psychological well-being
PAIN IN BIRDS
M J Gentle
Agricultural Food Research Council Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research, Edinburgh Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS, UK
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 235-248
For the detection and assessment of pain in animals both behavioural and physiological measurements are necessary. Cutaneous receptors which responded to noxious stimulation (nociceptors) have been identified in birds and have been characterized physiologically in the chicken. Following cutaneous nociceptive stimulation the chicken showed cardiovascular and characteristic behavioural changes consistent with those seen in mammals and indicative of pain perception. Following major burn trauma (partial beak amputation) there was behavioural and electrophysiological evidence for a pain-free period lasting several hours. This pain-free period was followed by pain-related behaviour with both anatomical and physiological evidence for long-term chronic pain.
While pain has been assessed following nociceptive stimulation and following trauma the painful consequences of chronic disease have not been investigated. Spontaneous degenerative joint disease is widespread in certain strains of intensively reared poultry, and while we do not know what effect joint degeneration has on the joint capsule receptors, recent work has shown in the joint capsule of birds there are similar receptor types to those found in mammals and it seems likely that joint degeneration in birds may be accompanied by painful sensations.
Experimental work has clearly detected painful conditions in birds but the alleviation of pain with analgesic drugs is not possible at present because analgesic agents have not been systematically investigated in birds.
Comparing pain in birds with mammals it is clear that, with regard to the anatomical, physiological and behavioural parameters measured, there are no major differences and therefore the ethical considerations normally afforded to mammals should be extended to birds.
Keywords: animal welfare, beak amputation, birds, chickens, nociception, pain, trauma
IN-HOMECAGE BLOOD COLLECTION FROM CONSCIOUS STUMPTAILED MACAQUES
V Reinhardt and D Cowley
Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center, 1223 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715, USA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 249-256
Six adult female stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides) were trained within a two-week period to actively co-operate during in-homecage venipuncture rather than in a restraint apparatus away from the homecage. The training was based on consistent firmness, gentleness and patience. Total training time per subject ranged from 15 to 45 minutes with a mean of 33.5 minutes. Endocrinological analysis one week after the last training session revealed an insignificant increase (0.4%) in serum cortisol between venipuncture samples taken 15 minutes apart. It was concluded that training stumptailed macaques to actively co-operate during blood collection in their familiar homecage promotes the animals' well-being by avoiding undue disturbance; increases the validity of research data collected by minimizing distress, and reduces health risks of the handling personnel by eliminating the need to carry the animals to a special area.
Keywords: animal welfare, homecage, stumptailed macaques, training, venipuncture
ASSESSING ANIMAL WELFARE: WHERE DOES SCIENCE END AND PHILOSOPHY BEGIN?
P Sandøe¹ and H B Simonsen²
1 Department of Education, Philosophy and Rhetorics, University of Copenhagen, Njalsgade 80, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
2 Department of Animal Science and Animal Health, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Denmark
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 257-288
To be able to assess animal welfare the researcher must presuppose a number of background assumptions that cannot be tested by means of ordinary empirical data collection. In order to substantiate these assumptions two sorts of inferences have to be relied upon, which the authors designate by the terms `analogies' and `homologies'. Analogies are evaluative, philosophical reflections by means of which it is made clear what provisions or states constitute the welfare of humans and other animals. By means of analogies it may, for example be argued that animal welfare consists of subjective experiences such as pain, boredom, pleasure and expectation. Also by means of analogies the relative `weight' of these states can be decided. Homologies are part of theoretical science. They serve to clarify how the relevant experiences are linked to measurable anatomical, physiological and behavioural parameters.
An account is given of the steps which have to be taken to give a full answer to a question concerning the welfare of animals. In the account only farm animals are mentioned, but the same steps, of course, also have to be taken to answer questions concerning the welfare of other kinds of animals be they companion, laboratory, zoo or wild. Eight steps are described, and it is argued that both analogies and homologies are needed at very fundamental levels. Therefore, if animal welfare science is to provide relevant, rational and reliable answers to questions concerning animal welfare, it must be an interdisciplinary inquiry involving philosophical reflections and theoretical biology.
Keywords: animal welfare, ethics, methodology, philosophy, subjective experiences
BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES OF LAYING HENS TO CARRIAGE ON HORIZONTAL AND INCLINED CONVEYORS
G B Scott¹ and P Moran²
1 Poultry Department, Scottish Agricultural College, Auchincruive, Ayr KA6 5HW, UK
2 Agricultural Food Research Council, Silsoe Research Institute, Silsoe
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 269-277
Groups of end-of-lay (spent) hens were subjected to three different treatments on a short flat-belt conveyor. Observations of bird behaviour indicated that the incidences of wing flapping, loss of balance and alarm calling significantly increased when birds were conveyed up and down slopes in comparison to being conveyed horizontally (P<0.01). Birds were significantly more hesitant when approaching the incline compared to the horizontal (P<0.001). However, differences in behavioural responses were not reflected in times spent in tonic immobility or open-field tests. There were no significant differences for the three treatments. It is possible that human contact, before and after conveying, was a more significant fear stimulus than the treatment itself.
Keywords: animal welfare, behaviour, conveyors, fear, handling, hens, injury, open-field, poultry, tonic immobility
AN ENRICHMENT DEVICE FOR GREAT APES
I Gilloux¹, J Gurnell¹ and D Shepherdson²
1 Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London
2 Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London
Present address: Metro Washington Park Zoo, 4001 SW Canyon Rd, Portland, Oregon 97221, USA
Abstract Animal Welfare 1992, 1: 279-289
The influence of an environmental enrichment feeding device (puzzle feeder), on activity and behaviour patterns of captive orang-utans, gorillas and chimpanzees was studied at London Zoo. General activity levels and behaviours directed towards the feeder increased for all species when the feeder was filled with food. Chimpanzees used the feeder significantly more (18% of observation periods) than either gorillas (10%) or orang-utans (9.4%). There was considerable individual variation of puzzle use by individuals within each group and time of day also affected use. In some instances abnormal behaviours were reduced. These results are discussed in relation to the management of captive great apes and it is suggested that the use of puzzle feeders can improve the welfare of these animals.
Keywords: animal welfare, environmental enrichment, primates, puzzle feeder
